&86c 


JJnivergit 
D  405^1] 

3  OF  THOU 


hi     ' 
U 

ZO' 
bJ 

h 

Z 

y 

(0 


G 
C 
Si 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT 


Z 


m 


43 


83 


93 

olon 


Cause  and 
reason 


/s  whi^n  or 
/swfycre 
clauses 


Undevelopd  rr 
thought    " 


Fransitions 


Exercise 


ive 
ition 


1^ 

Subordination  Subordination 


of  the  main 
thought 


thwarted 
by  and 


17 

constructions 


18 

onc/w/)fch  IThe  comma 
splice 


19 

Exercise 


-al 
?ncq 


25 

Logical 
sequence 


26 

Squinting 
modifier 


27 

Misplaced 
word 


28 

Split 
construction 


29 

Exercise 


tons 


35 

Mixed 
imogery 


36 

The  exact 
connecilw 


37 

Connective 

to  t?e 

repeated 


38 

Connective 
not  to  Pe 
n^peated 


39 

Exercise 


of 

3X 


-45 

Balanced 
sentence 


The  vveak 

passive 

voice 


4-7 

Repetition 
effective 


48 

Repetition 
offensive 


^9 

Exercise 


pal 
s 


55 

Tense 

nnode. 

Quxiliary 


56 

Adjective 

and 
adverb 


S7 

Word  in  a 
double 
copacity 


List  oTthe 
terms  of 
grammar 


59 

Exercise 


)d 


65 

Idioms 
Codoquifllisms 


67 

Barb(3risms|Words  con- 
fused in 
meaning 


66 

Slang 


68 

Glossary 

of  faulty 

diction 


69 

Exercise 


/e 


Doubling 

a  final 

consonant 


76 


Dropping 
final  e 


TT 

Plurals 


78 

Compounds 


79 

Spelling 
list 


85 


ITS 


Syllabication 


86 

Outlines 


87 


88 


Letters 


Paragraphs 


89 

Exercise 


95 

Parenthesis 
Brackets 


96 

Quotation 
marks 


97 

Apostrophe 


98 

Question 
and  exclann- 
ation  marks 


99 

Exercise 


Department  of  II  -ic  ^  -^nomics 

University  of  California 

405  Hilgard  Avenue 

Los  Angeles  24,  California 


THE  CENTURY  HANDBOOK 
OF  WRITING 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2008  witii  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/centurylianclbookoOOgree 


THE 

CENTURY  HANDBOOK  OF 

WRITING 


BY 


GARJ.AND  GREEVER 

Associate  Professor  of  English 
Indiana  University 


EASLEY  S.  JONES 

Instructor  in  English 
The  University  of  Illinois 


o 

o 
o 


(J 


O) 


G3 


B  6'  <  ^ 

h-(  c+_^  13  «^ 

si   •  .. 

S      o^      O      •< 


NEW  YORK        - 
THE  CENTURY  CO. 
1918 


Copyright,  1918,  by 
The  Century  Co 


PREFACE 

This  handbook  treats  essential  matters  of  grammar,  diction, 
spelling,  mechanics ;  and  develops  with  thoroughness  the  prin- 
ciples of  sentence  structure.  Larger  units  of  composition  it  leaves 
to  the  texts  ni  formal  rhetoric. 

The  booi<  is  built  on  a  decimal  plan,  the  material  being  simpli- 
fied and  reduced  to  one  hundred  articles.  Headings  of  these 
articles  are  summarized  on  two  opposite  pages  by  a  chart.  Here 
the  student  can  see  at  a  glance  the  resources  of  the  volume,  and 
the  instructor  can  find  immediately  the  number  he  wishes  to  write 
in  the  margin  of  a  theme.  The  chart  and  the  decimal  scheme 
together  make  the  rules  accessible  for  instant  reference. 

By  a  device  equally  efiicient,  the  book  throws  upon  the  student 
the  responsibility  of  teaching  himself.  Each  article  begins  with 
a  concise  rule,  which  is  illustrated  by  examples:  then  follows  a 
short  "  parallel  exercise  "  which  the  instructor  may  assign  by  add- 
ing an  X  to  the  number  he  writes  in  the  margin  of  a  theme. 
While  correcting  this  exercise,  the  student  will  give  attention  to 
the  rule,  and  will  acquire  theory  and  practice  at  the  same  time. 
Moreover,  every  group  of  ten  articles  is  followed  by  mixed  exer- 
cises; these  may  be  used  for  review,  or  imposed  in  the  margin  of 
a  theme  as  a  penalty  for  flagrant  or  repeated  error.  Thus  friendly 
counsel  is  backed  by  discipline,  and  the  instructor  has  the  means 
of  compelling  the  student  to  make  rapid  progress  toward  good 
English. 

Although  a  handbook  of  this  nature  is  in  some  ways  arbitrary, 
the  arbitrariness  is  always  in  the  interest  of  simplicity.  The  book 
does  ha\e  simplicity,  permits  instant  reference,  and  provides  an 
adequate  drill  which  may  be  assigned  at  the  stroke  of  a  pen. 


979S08 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

^  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGFIT 

1.  Fragments  wrongly  used  as  sentences 

2.  Incomplete  constructions 

3.  Necessary  words  omitted 

4.  Comparisons  not  logically  completed 

5.  Cause  and  reason 

6.  Is  Zijhcn  and  is  ivliere  clauses 

7.  Undeveloped  thought 

8.  Transitions 

9.  Exercise 

A.  Incomplete  sentences 

B.  Incomplete  constructions 

C.  Incomplete  logic 

D.  Undeveloped  thought  and  transitions 

UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 

10.  Unrelated  ideas  in  one  sentence 

11.  Excessive  detail 

12.  Stringy  sentences  to  he  hroken  up 

13.  Choppy  sentences  to  be  combined 

14.  Excessive  coordination 

15.  Faulty  subordination  of  the  main  thought 

16.  Subordination  thwarted  by  and 

17.  The  and  ivhich  construction 

18.  The  comma  splice 

19.  Exercise 

A.  The  comma  splice 

B.  One  thought  in  a  sentence 

C.  Excessive  coordination 

D.  Upside-down  subordination 


CONTENTS 

CLEARNESS  OF  THOUGHT 
Reference 

20.  Divided  reference 

21.  Weak  reference 

22.  Broad  reference 

23.  Dangling  participle  or  gerund 
Coherence 

24.  General  incoherence 

25.  Logical  sequence 

26.  Squinting  modifier 
2";.  Misplaced  word 

28.  Split  construction 

29.  Exercise 

A.  Reference  of  pronouns 

B.  Dangling  modifiers 

C.  Coherence 

Parallel  Structure 

30.  Parallel  structure  for  parallel  thoughts 

31.  Correlatives 
Consistency 

2)2.  Shift  in  subject  or  voice 

ZZ-  Shift  in  number,  person,  or  tense 

34.  Mixed  constructions 

35.  Mixed  imagery 

Use  of  Connectives 

36.  The  exact  connective 

yj.  Repetition  of  connective  with  gain  in  clearness 

38.  Repetition  of  connective  with  loss  in  clearness 

39.  Exercise 

A.  Parallel  structure 

B.  Shift  in  subject  or  voice 

C.  Shift  in  number,  person,  or  tense 

D.  The  exact  connective 

E.  Repetition  of  connectives 

EMPHASIS 

40.  Emphasis  by  position 

41.  Emphasis  by  separation 


CONTENTS 

42.  Emphasis  by  subordination 

43.  The  periodic  sentence 

44.  Order  of  cHmax 

45.  The  balanced  sentence 

46.  Weak  effect  of  the  passive  voice 

47.  Repetition  ciifective :     a  Words ;  b  Structure 

48.  Repetition  offensive :     a  Words ;  b  Structure 

49.  Exercise 

A.  Lack  of  emphasis  in  general 

B.  Loose  structure 

C.  Repetition 


GRAMMAR 

50.  Case:     a  Nominative,  especially  after  than  or  as; 

h  Nominative  -who  and  ivhoczcr ;  c  Predicate  nominative; 
d  Objective;  e  Objective  with  infinitive;  f  Possessive; 
g  Possessive  with  gerund ;  h  Possession  by  inanimate 
objects;  i  Agreement  of  pronouns 

51.  Number:     a  Each,  every  one,  etc.;  b  Those  kind,  etc.; 

c  Collective  nouns :  d  Don't 

52.  Agreement  —  not  to  be  thwarted  by  :     a  Intervening  nouns; 

b  Together  tvifli  phrases;  c  Or  or  nor  after  subject; 
d  And  in  the  subject:  e  A  predicate  noun; 
f  An  introductory  tliere 

53.  Shall  and  zvill 

54.  Principal  parts.     List 

55.  Tense,  mode,  auxiliaries :     a  Tense  in   dependent  clauses 

or  infinitives:  1)  The  past  perfect;  c  Present  tense  for  a 
general  statement:  d  Mode:  e  Aii.xiliaries 

56.  Adjective  and  adverb:     a  Adjective  misused  for  adverb; 

b  Ambiguous  cases;  c  After  verbs  pertaining  to  the 
senses 

57.  A  word  in  a  double  capacity 

58.  List  of  the  terms  of  grammar 

59.  Exercise 

A.  Case  of  pronouns 

B.  Agreement 

C.  Shall  and  7cill 

D.  Lie,  lay:  sit,  set;  rise,  raise 

E.  Principal  parts  of  verbs 

F.  General 


CONTENTS 


of  good  use: 
good   use : 


a   Faulty   idiom;  b   Col- 
1  Barbarisms;   b  Impro- 
List 


DICTION 

60.  Wordiness 

61.  Triteness 

62.  The  exact  word 

63.  Concreteness 

64.  Sound 

65.  Subtle  violations 
loquialism 

66.  Gross   violations   of 
prieties ;  c  Slang 

67.  Words  often  confused  in  meaning. 

68.  Glossary  of  faulty  diction 

69.  Exercise 

A.  Wordiness 

B.  The  exact  word 

C.  Words  sometimes  confused  in  meaning 

D.  Colloquialisms,  slang,  faulty  idioms 

SPELLING 

70.  Recording  errors 
7\.  Pronouncing  accurately 
T2.  Logical  kinship  in  words 
TZ.  Superficial  resemblances.     List 

74.  Words  in  ci  and  xe 

75.  Doubling  a  final  consonant 

76.  Dropping  final  e 
yy.  Plurals :     a  Plurals  in  s  or  cs;  b 

c  Compound   nouns ;   d   Letters, 
e  Old  plurals;  f  Foreign  plurals 

78.  Compounds:     a  Compound  adjectives;  b  Compound  nouns; 

c  Numbers;  d  Words  written  solid;  e  General  principle 

79.  Spelling  List  (500  words,  200  in  bold-face  type) 

MISCELLANEOUS 

80.  Manuscript:     a  Titles;  b  Spacing;  c  Handwriting 

81.  Capitals :     a  To  begin  a  sentence  or  a  quotation ;  b  Proper 

names;   c    Proper   adjectives;    d    In   titles   of  books  or 
themes ;  e  Miscellaneous  uses 

82.  Italics:     a  Titles  of  books;  b  Foreign  words;  c  Names  of 

ships;  d  Words  taken  out  of  context;  e  For  emphasis 


Nouns  ending  in  y; 
figures,   and  signs ; 


CONTENTS 

83.  Abbreviations :     a    In    ordinary    writing ;    b    In    business 

writing 

84.  Numbers:     a  Dates  and  street  numbers;  b  Long  figures; 

c  Sums  of  money,  etc. 

85.  Syllabication:     a  Position  of  hyphen;  b  Division  between 

syllables ;  c  Monosyllabic  words  not  divided ;  d  One  con- 
sonant between  syllables;  e  Two  consonants  between 
syllables ;  f  Prefixes  and  suffixes ;  g  Short  words ;  h  Mis- 
leading division 

86.  Outlines:     a  Topic  Outline;  b  Sentence  Outline;  c  Para- 

graph Outline;  d  Indention;  e  Parallel  form;  f  Faulty 
coordination ;  g  Too  detailed  subordination 

87.  Letters:     a  Heading;  b  Inside  address  and  greeting; 

c  Body,  Language;  d  Close:  e.  Outside  address; 
f  Miscellaneous  directions;  g  Model  business  letter; 
h  Formal  notes 

88.  Paragraphs :    a    Indention ;    b    Length ;    c    Dialogue 

89.  Exercise 

Capitals,  numbers,  abbreviations,  etc. 


PUNCTUATION 

90.  The   Period:     a   After   sentences;   b   But   not  after   frag- 

ments of  sentences ;  c  After  abbreviations 

91.  The  Comma:     a  Between  clauses  joined  by  but,  for,  and; 

h  But  NOT  to  splice  clauses  not  joined  by  a  conjunction; 
c  After  a  subordinate  clause  preceding  a  main  clause; 
d  To  set  oft^  non-restrictive  clauses  and  phrases;  e  To 
set  off  parenthetical  elements;  f  Between  adjectives; 
g  Between  words  in  a  series;  h  Before  a  quotation; 
i  To  compel  a  pause  for  clearness ;  j    Superfluous  uses 

92.  The  Semicolon:     a  Between  coordinate  clauses  not  joined 

by  a  conjunction;  b  Between  long  coordinate  clauses; 
c  Before  a  formal  conjunctive  adverb;  d  But  not  before 
a  quotation 

93.  The  Colon :     a  To  introduce  a  formal  series  or  quotation ; 

b  Before  concrete  illustrations  of  a  previous  general 
statement 

94.  The  Dash :     a  To  enclose  a  parenthetical  statement :  b  To 

mark  a  breaking-off  in  thought ;  c  Before  a  summarizing 
st;itement ;  d  But  not  to  be  used  in  place  of  a  period ; 
e  Not  to  be  confused  with  the  hyphen 

95.  Parenthesis  Marks :     a  Uses  ;  b  With  other  marks ;  c  Con- 


CONTENTS 

firmatory  symbols ;  d  Not  used  to  cancel  words ; 
e  Brackets 

96.  Quotation     Marks:     a   With    quotations;     b   With    para- 

graphs; c  In  dialogue;  d  With  slang,  etc.;  e  With  words 
set  apart;  f  Quotation  withni  a  quotation;  g  Together 
with  other  marks;  h  Quotation  interrupted  by  he  said; 
i  Omission  from  a  quotation ;  j  Unnecessary  in  the  title 
of  a  theme,  or  as  a  label  for  humor  or  irony 

97.  The  Apostrophe:     a  In  contractions;  b  To  form  the  pos- 

sessive ;  c  To  form  the  possessive  of  nouns  ending  in  s; 
d  Not  used  with  personal  possessive  pronouns;  e  To 
form  the  plural  of  certain  signs  and  letters 

98.  The   Question   Mark:     a   After   a   direct   question;   b   Not 

followed  by  a  comma  within  a  sentence;  c  In  parentheses 
to  express  uncertainty;  d  Not  used  to  label  irony;  e  The 
Exclamation    Point 

99.  Exercise 

100.  General  Exercise 


TO  THE  STUDENT 

When  a  number  is  written  in  the  margin  of  your  theme,  you  are 
to  turn  to  the  article  which  corresponds  to  the  number.  Read  the 
rule  (printed  in  bold-face  type),  and  study  the  examples.  When 
an  r  follows  the  number  on  your  theme,  you  are,  in  addition,  to 
copy  the  rule.  When  an  x  follows  the  number,  you  are,  besides 
acquainting  yourself  with  the  rule,  to  write  the  exercise  of  five 
sentences,  to  correct  your  own  faulty  sentence,  and  to  hand  in  the 
six  on  theme  paper.  If  the  number  ends  m  9  (9.  19,  29,  etc.).  you 
will  find,  not  a  rule,  but  a  long  exercise  which  you  are  to  write 
and  hand  in  on  theme  paper.  In  the  absence  of  special  instruc- 
tions from  your  teacher,  you  are  invariably  to  proceed  as  this 
paragraph  requires. 

Try  to  grasp  the  principle  which  underlies  the  rule.  In  many 
places  ni  this  book  the  reason  for  the  existence  of  the  rule  is 
clearly  stated.  Thus  under  30,  the  reason  for  the  rule  on  parallel 
structure  is  explained  in  a  prologue.  In  other  instances,  as  in  the 
rule  on  divided  reference  (20),  the  reason  becomes  clear  the  mo- 
nient  you  read  the  examples.  In  certain  other  instances  the  rule 
may  appear  arbitrary  and  without  a  basis  in  reason.  But  there  is 
a  basis  in  reason,  as  you  will  observe  in  the  following  illustration. 

Suppose  you  write,  "  He  is  twenty  one  years  old."  The  in- 
structor asks  you  to  put  a  hyphen  in  twenty-ove,  and  refers  you 
to  y8.  You  cannot  see  why  a  hyphen  is  necessary,  since  the  mean- 
ing is  clear  without  it.  But  tomorrow  you  may  write.  "  I  will 
send  you  twenty  five  dollar  bills."  The  reader  cannot  tell  whether 
you  mean  twenty  five-dollar  bills  or  twenty-five  dollar  bills  In 
the  first  sentence  the  use  of  the  hyphen  in  twenty-one  did  not 
make  much  difference.  In  the  second  sentence  the  hyphen  makes 
seventy-five  dollars'  worth  of  difference.  Thus  the  instructor,  in 
asking  you  to  write,  "He  is  twenty-one  years  old,"  is  helping  you 


to  form  a  habit  that  will  save  you  from  serious,  error  in  other 
sentences.  Whenever  you  cannot  understand  the  reason  for  a 
rule,  ask  yourself  whether  the  usage  of  many  clear-thinking  nun 
for  long  years  past  may  not  be  protecting  you  from  difficulties 
which  you  do  not  foresee.  Instructors  and  writers  of  text  books 
(impressive  as  is  the  evidence  to  the  contrary)  are  human,  and 
do  not  invent  rules  to  puzzle  you.  They  do  not,  in  fact,  mvent 
rules  at  all,  but  only  make  convenient  applications  of  principles 
which  generations  of  writers  have  found  to  be  wisest  and  best 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGHT 

The  first  thing  to  make  certain  is  that  the  thought 
of  a  sentence  is  complete.  A  fragment  which  has  no 
meaning  when  read  alone,  or  a  sentence  which  omits 
a  necessary  word,  phrase,  or  idea,  violates  an  elemen- 
tary principle  of,  writing. 

Fragments  Wrongly  Used  as  Sentences 

1.   Do  not  write  a  subordinate  part  of  a  sentence  as  if  it 
were  a  complete  sentence. 

Wrong:     He  stopped  short.     Hearing  some  one  approach. 
Right :     He   stopped   short,  hearing  some  one  approach.     [Or] 

Hearing  some  one  approach,  he  stopped  short. 
Wrong:     The    winters    are    cold.     Although    the    summers    are 

pleasant. 
Right:     Although   the   summers   are   pleasant,   the   winters  are 

cold. 
Wrong:     The  hunter  tried  to  move  the  stone.     Which  he  found 

very  heavy. 
Right:     The  hunter  tried  to  move  the  stone,  which  he  found 

very  heavy.     [Or]   The  hunter  tried  to  move  the  stone.     He 

found  it  very  heavy. 

Note. —  A  sentence  must  in  itself  express  a  complete 
thought.  Phrases  or  subordinate  clauses,  if  used  alone, 
carry  only  an  incomplete  meaning.  They  must  there- 
fore be  attached  to  a  sentence,  or  restated  in  independent 
form.  Elliptical  expressions  used  in  conversation  may 
be  regarded  as  exceptions:  Where?  At  what  time? 
Ten  o'clock.     By  no  means.     Certainly.     Go. 

3 


2 

COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGHT 

Exercise : 

1.  My    next    experience    was    in    a    grain    elevator.     Where    I 

worked  for  two  summers. 

2.  The  parts   of   a    fountain   pen   are :   first,   the   point.     This   is 

gold.     Second,  the  hody. 

3.  The    form   is    set   rigidly.     So   that    it   will   not   be   displaced 

wlien  the  concrete  is  thrown  in. 

4.  There  are  several   reasons  to  account   for  the  swarming  of 

bees.     One   of   these   having  already   been   mentioned. 

5.  Since  June   the  company   has   increased   its   trade   three  per 

cent.     Since  August,  five  per  cent. 

Incomplete  Constructions 

2.   Do  not  leave  uncompleted  a  construction  which  you 
have  begun. 

Wrong:     You   remember  that   in  his  speech  in  which  he   said 

he  would  oppose  the  bill. 
Right :     You   remember   that   in   his    speech   he   said   he   would 

oppose  the  bill.     [Or]   You  remember  the  speech  in  which  he 

said  he  would  oppose  the  bill. 
Wrong :     He  was  a  young  man  who,  coming  from  the  country, 

with  ignorance  of  city  ways,  but  with  plenty  of  determination 

to  succeed. 
Right :     He  was  a  young  man  who,  coming  from  the  country, 

was   ignorant  of  city  ways,  but   had  plenty  of  determination 

to  succeed. 
Wrong:     From   the   window   of   the   train   I   perceived   one   of 

those  unsightly  structures. 
Right:     From  the  window  of  the  train  I  perceived  one  of  those 

unsightly    structures    which    are    always    to    be    seen    near    a 

station. 

Exercise : 

1.  As  far  as  his  having  been  deceived,  there  is  a  difference  of 

opinion  on  that  matter. 

2.  The  fact  that  he  was  always  in  trouble,  his  parents  wondered 

whether  he  should  remain  in  school  or  not, 
4 


COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGHT 

3.  People  who  go  back  to  the  scenes  ol   their  childhood  every- 

thing looks  strangely  small. 

4.  It  was  the  custom  that  whenever  a  political  party  came  into 

office,  for  the  incoming  men  to  discharge  all  employees  of 
the  opposite  part\'. 

5.  Although  the  average  man,  if  asked  whether  he  could  shoot 

a  rabbit,  would  answer  in  the  affirmative,  even  though  he 
had  never  hunted  rabbits,  would  find  himself  badly  mis- 
taken. 

Necessary  Words  Omitted 

3.   Do  not  omit  a  word  or  a  phrase  which  is  necessary  to 
an  immediate  understanding  of  a  sentence. 

Ambiguous :  I  consulted  the  secretary  and  president.  [Did  the 
speaker  consult  one  man  or  two?] 

Right:  I  consulted  the  secretary  and  the  president.  [Or]  I 
consulted  the  man  who  was  president  and  secretary. 

Ambiguous :  Water  passes  through  the  cement  as  well  as  the 
bricks. 

Right :  Water  passes  through  the  cement  as  well  as  through 
the  bricks. 

Wrong :  1  have  had  experience  in  every  phase  of  the  auto- 
mobile. 

Right:  I  have  had  experience  in  every  phase  of  automobile 
driving  and  repaning. 

Wrong :  About  huii  were  men  whom  he  could  not  tell  whether 
they  were  friends  or  lues. 

Right ;  About  hnn  were  men  regarding  whom  he  could  not 
tell  whether  they  were  friends  or  foes.  [Or,  better]  About 
him  were  men  who  might  have  been  either   friends  or   foes. 

Exercise : 

1.  When  still  a  small  boy,  my  family  moved  to  Centerville. 

2.  Constantly  in  conversation  with  some  one  broadens  our  ideas 

and  our  vocabulary. 

3.  It  was  a  trick  play  which  opposing  teams  were  sure  to  be 

baffled. 

5 


COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGHT 

4.  They  departed  for  the  battle  front  with  the  knowledge  they 

might  never  return. 

5.  At  the  banquet  were  all  classes  of  people;  I  met  a  banker 

and  plumber. 

Comparisons 
4.  Comparisons  must  be  completed  logically. 


Wrong 
Wrong 
Wrong 


His  speed  was  equal  to  a  racehorse. 

Of  course  my  opinion  is  worth  less  than  a  lawyer. 

The  shells  which  are  used  in  quail  hunting  are  dif- 


ferent than  in  rabbit  hunting. 

Compare  a  thing  with  another  thing,  an  abstraction 
with  another  abstraction.  Do  not  carelessly  com- 
pare a  thing  with  a  part  or  quality  of  another  thing. 
Continually  ask,  what  is  compared  with  what? 

Right:     His  speed  was  equal  to  that  of  a  racehorse. 

Right:     Of  course  my  opinion  is  worth  less  than  a  lawyer's. 

Right:  The  shells  which  are  used  in  quail  hunting  are  dif- 
ferent from  those  which  are  used  in  rabbit  hunting. 

Self-contradictory:     Chicago  is  larger  than  any  city  in  Illinois. 

Right:     Chicago  is  larger  than  any  other  city  in  Illinois. 

Impossible :     Chicago  is  the  largest  of  any  other  city  in  Illinois. 

Right:  Chicago  is  the  largest  of  all  the  cities  in  Illinois.  [Or] 
Chicago  is  the  largest  city  in  Illinois. 

Note. —  After  a  comparative,  the  subject  of  the  compari- 
son should  be  excluded  from  the  class  with  which  it  is 
compared;  after  a  superlative,  the  subject  of  the  com- 
parison should  be  included  within  the  class. 

r  taller  of  all  the  girls 
^•■^"^■ttallest  of  any  girl 

r taller  than  any  other  girl  [comparative] 
Right:    "1^ tallest  of  all  the  girls  [superlative] 


COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGHT 

Exercise : 

1.  The   climate   of   America   helps   her   athletes   to   become   su- 

perior to  other  countries. 

2.  This  tobacco  is  the  best  of  any  other  on  the  market. 

3.  You  men  are  paid  three  dollars  more  than  any  other  factory 

in  the  city. 

4.  1  thought  I  was  best  fitted   for  an  engineering  course  than 

any   other. 

5.  Care   should  be  taken  not  to   turn   in  more  cattle  than  the 

grass  in  the  pasture. 

Cause  and  Reason 

5.   A  simple  statement  of  fact  may  be  completed  by  a 
because  clause. 

Right :     I  am  late  because  I  was  sick. 

But  a  statement  containing  the  reason  is  must  be 
completed  by  a  that  clause. 

Wrong:  The  reason  I  am  late  is  because  I  was  sick.  [The 
"  reason  "  is  not  a  "  because  " ;  the  "  reason  "  is  the  fact  of 
sickness.] 

Right :     The  reason  T  am  late  is  that  I  was  sick. 

Because,  the  conjunction,  may  introduce  an  adverbial 
clause  only. 

Wrong :  Because  a  man  wears  old  clothes  is  no  proof  that  he  is 
poor.     [A  because  clause  cannot  be  the  subject  of  is.] 

Right :  The  fact  that  a  man  wears  old  clothes  is  no  proof  that 
he  is  poor.  [Or]  The  wearing  of  old  clothes  is  not  proof  that 
a  man  is  poor. 

Note. —  Because  of,  oiving  to,  on  account  of,  introdtice 
adverbial  phra-^ies  only.  Due  to  and  caused  by  intro- 
duce adjectival  phrases  only. 


COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGHT 

Wrong:  He  failed,  due  to  weak  eyes.  [Due  is  an  adjective; 
it  cannot  modify  a  verb.] 

^.  ,  .T-     .  •,  fdue  to        1         , 

Right:     His  failure  was-  ,,     L weak  eyes. 

*  [^caused  byj 

fhecause  of       1 
Right:     He  failed  J  owing  to  I  weak  eyes. 

I  on  account  of  J  , 

Exercise : 

1.  The  reason  why  I  would  not  buy  a  Ford  car  is  because  it  is 

too  light. 

2.  My  second  reason  for  coming  here  is  because  of  social  advan- 

tages. 

3.  Because  John  is  rich  does  not  make  him  happier  than  I. 

4.  Because  I  like  farming  is  the  reason  1  chose  it. 

5.  The  only  reason  why  vegetation  does  not  grow  here  is  be- 

cause of  the  lack  of  water. 

is  when  or  is  where  Clauses 

6.  Do  not  use  a  when  or  where  clause  as  a  predicate 
noun.  In  definitions,  do  not  say  that  a  noun  is  a 
"when"  or  a  "where".  Define  a  noun  by  another 
noun. 

Wrong:     The  great  event  is  when  the  train  arrives. 

Right:     The  great  e\  ent  is  the  arrival  of  the  train. 

Wrong:     Immigration  is  where  foreigners  come  into  a  country. 

Right :  Immigration  is  the  entering  of  foreigners  into  a  coun- 
try. 

Wrong:     A  simile  is  when  one  object  is  compared  with  another. 

Right:  A  simile  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which  one  object  is 
compared  with  another. 

Note. —  A  definition  of  a  term  is  a  statement  which  (i) 
names  the  class  to  which  the  term  lielongs,  and  (2) 
distinguishes  it  from  other  members  of  the  class.     Ex- 


COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGHT 

ample:  A  hound  is  a  dog  which  hunts  by  scent.  The 
test  of  a  definition  is  to  ask  whether  it  separates  the 
term  defined  from  all  other  things.  If  the  definition 
does  not  do  this,  it  is  incomplete.  Define  California 
(so  as  to  exclude  other  states),  zciudozi'  (so  as  to  ex- 
clude door),  star  (exclude  moon),  night,  rain,  circle, 
Bible,  metal,  mile,  patriotism. 

Exercise : 

1.  The  pistol  shot  if  when  the  race  begins. 

2.  A  snob  is  when  a  man  treats  others  as  inferior  socially. 

3.  The  wireless  telegraph   is  where  messages   are   sent   a   long 

distance  through  the  air. 

4.  The  definition  of  usury  is  where  one  charges  interest  higher 

than  the  legal  rate. 

5.  Biology  is  when  one  studies  plant  and  animal  life. 

Undeveloped  Thought 

7.   Do  not  halfway  express  an  idea.     If  the  idea  is  impor- 
tant, develop  it.     If  it  is  not  important,  omit  it. 

Incomplete:     We  were  now  quite  sure  that  we  had  lost  our  way, 

and  Jack  said  he  had  a  busmess  engagement  that  night. 
Better :     We  were  now  quite  sure  that  we  had  lost  our  way,  a 

fact  which  was  all  the  more  annoying  as  Jack  said  he  had  a 

business  engagement  that  night. 
Puzzling:     Since  McAndrew  had  inherited  money,  his  suitcase 

was  plastered  with  labels. 
Right :     Since  McAndrew  had  inherited  money,  he  had  traveled 

extensively.     His  suitcase  was  plastered  with  labels  of  foreign 

hotels. 
Careless :     In  looking   for  gasoline  troubles,  we   forgot  to   see 

whether  the  tank  was  supplied. 
Right:     In  looking  for  the  cause  of  the  trouble,  we  forgot  to  see 

whether  the  tank  was  supplied  with  gasoline. 


COMPLETENESS  OE  THOUGHT 

Note. —  In  giving  information  about  books,  do  not  con- 
fuse the  title  vvitb  the  contents  or  some  part  of  the  con- 
tents. Be  accurate  in  referring  to  the  time,  scene,  ac- 
tion, plot,  or  characters. 

Loose  thinking :  Shakespeare's  Hamlet  occurs  in  Denmark  [The 
scene  is  kiid?].  Many  passages  are  powerful,  especially  the 
grave-digging  [Ls  grave-digging  a  passage?].  The  character 
of  Horatio  is  a  noble  fellov^f  [conception],  and  the  same  is  true 
of  Ophelia  [Ophelia  a  fellow?].  The  drama  takes  place  over 
several  weeks.     [The  action  covers  a  period  of  several  weeks.] 

Exercise : 

1.  The  victrola  brings  to  the  home  the  world's  musical  ability. 

2.  The  user  of  Dietzgen  instruments  is  not  vexed  by  numerous 

troubles  that  accompany  the  inferior  makes. 

3.  To   the   picnicker   rainy    weather    is   bad    weather,    while    the 

farmer  raises  a  big  crop. 

4.  Some  diseases  can  be  checked  by  preventives,  and  in  many 

cases  can  be  of  great  use  to  an  army. 

5.  This  idea  of  breaking  all  records  held  for  eating  is  naturally 

harmful  to  the  digestion,  and  these  important  organs  may 
thank  their  stars  that  Christmas  does  not  come  very  often. 

Transitions 

The  state  of  mind  of  a  writer  is  not  the  state  of  mind 
of  his  reader.  The  writer  l<nows  his  ideas,  and  has 
spent  much  time  with  them.  Tlie  reader  meets  these 
ideas  for  the  first  time,  and  must  gather  them  in  at  a 
glance.  The  relation  between  two  ideas  may  be  clear 
to  the  writer,  and  not  at  all  clear  to  the  reader.  There- 
fore, 


COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGHT 

8.  In  passing  from  one  thought  to  another,  make  the  con- 
nection clear.  If  necessary,  insert  a  word,  a  phrase,  or 
even  a  sentence,  to  carry  the  reader  safely  across. 

Space  transition  needed :  We  were  surprised  to  see  a  house  in 
the  distance,  but  we  went  to  the  door  and  knocked.  [This 
sentence  does  not  give  a  reader  the  effect  of  distance.] 

Better :  We  were  surprised  to  see  a  house  in  the  distance. 
But  zve  fiastcncd  toivard  it  zvith  thoughts  of  a  ivarm  meal  and 
a  good  lodging.  W c  entered  the  yard,  and  went  up  to  the 
door,  and  knocked. 

Exterior-interior  transition  needed :  We  noticed  that  the  house 
was  built  of  cobblestones.  There  was  a  broad  window  from 
which  we  could  look  out  upon  the  small  stream  that  dashed 
down  the  rocky  hillside. 

Better:  We  noticed  that  the  house  was  built  of  cobblestones. 
fVe  went  inside,  and  found  that  the  living  room  zvas  large  and 
airy.  There  was  a  broad  window  from  which  we  could  look 
out  upon  the  small  stream  that  dashed  down  the  rocky  hill- 
side. 

Cause  transition  lacking :  The  Romans  were  great  road-build- 
ers.    They  wished  to  maintain  their  empire. 

Better:  The  Romans  were  great  road-builders,  because  means 
of  moving  troops  quickly  were  necessary  to  the  maintenance 
of  their  empire. 

General-to-particular  transition  needed :  Modern  machinery 
often  makes  men  its  slaves.  Last  summer  I  worked  for  the 
Chandler  Company.  [This  gap  in  thought  occurs  oftenest  be- 
tween the  first  two  sentences  of  a  paragraph  or  theme  ] 

Better:  Modern  machinery  often  makes  men  its  slaves.  This 
truth  is  zvell  illustrated  by  my  ozvn  experience.  Last  summer 
I  worked  for  the  Chandler  Company. 

Transition  to  be  improved  by  changing  order :  A  careless 
trainer  may  spoil  a  good  colt.  A  good  horse  can  never  be 
made  of  a  vicious  colt.  [Here  the  order  of  ideas  is: 
"Trainer  .  .  .  colt.  Horse  .  .  .  colt."  Turn  the  last  sentence 
end  for  end.] 


8 


COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGHT 

Better:  A  carokss  trainer  may  spoil  a  good  colt.  And  a  vi- 
cious colt  can  never  be  made  a  good  horse.  LNow  the  order 
of  ideas  is   "  Trainer  .  .  .  colt.     Colt  .  .  .  horse.'] 

Transition  to  be  improved  by  removal  of  a  disturbing  element : 
Our  class  in  physics  last  week  visited  a  pumping  station  in 
which  the  Corliss  type  of  steam  engine  is  used.  The  cnyines 
are  manulacturcd  by  the  Alhs-Chulmcrs  Company  of  Mihvau- 
kec,  IVisconsin.  This  type  of  engine  is  used  because  it  has 
several  advantages.  [The  italicized  sentence  should  be  omitted 
here,  and  used  later  in  the  theme.] 

Note. —  The  divisions  of  thought  within  a  paragraph  may 
hkewise  be  indicated  by  connectives :  hoivever,  oh  the 
other  hand,  equally  iiiipurlaiit,  aiiotJier  interesting  prob- 
lem is,  for  this  reason,  the  remedy  for  this,  so  much 
for,  it  remains  to  mention,  of  course  I  admit,  finallx. 
(For  a  longer  hst  see  36.)  Stich  phrases  are  also  use- 
ful in  linking  one  paragraph  to  another. 

When  a  student  first  learns  the  art,  he  is  liable  to  use 
transition  phrases  in  excess,  and  produce  something 
like  the  following:  "When  I  have  to  write  a  theme, 
I  first  think  of  my  subject.  As  soon  as  I  have  my  sub- 
ject, I  take  out  my  paper.  On  the  paper  1  then  make 
a  rough  outline."  This  abuse  of  transition  causes  an 
overlapping  of  thought,  like  shingles  laid  three  inches 
to  the  weather.  An  abrupt  transition  is  better  than 
wordiness. 

Exercise: 

1.  The  shore  looked  far  off.     Then  we  reached  it. 

2.  A  light  snow  was  falling  last  night.     This  is  a  good  day  for 

hunting  rabbits. 

3.  A  dollar  is  often  a  large  sum.     I  sold  newspapers  when  I  was 

a  boy. 


COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGHT    • 

4.  Many  English  words  still  preserve  their  old  meanings.    There 

is  the  teller  in  the  bank. 

5.  We  had  to  walk  half  a  mile  across  the  pastures  in  the  fresh 

morning  air.     Exercise  indoors  does  not  arouse  much  zest 
or  enthusiasm. 

9.   EXERCISE  IN  COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGHT 

A.     Fragments  Misused  as  Sentences 

Rewrite  the  following  statements  in  sentences  each  of 
which  expresses»a  complete  thought. 

1.  He  gave  me  a  riower.     Which  was  wilted. 

2.  The  gasoline  riows  through  the  supply  tube  to  the  carburetor. 

Where  it  should  vaporize  and  enter  the  cylinders. 

3.  People  of  all  ages  were  there.     Old  men,  young  women,  and 

even  children. 

4.  He  told  us  that  you  had  a  good  standing  among  business  men. 

That  you  always  met  your  bills  promptly. 

5.  Excuse  Everett  Smith  from  school  this  morning.     He  having 

the  measles. 

6.  The   internal-combustion   engine   may  be   either   one   of   two 

types.     The  two  cycle  or  the  four  cycle. 

7.  The  young  men  and  women  acted  like  children.     Who  should 

have  known  better. 

8.  There  was  a  cross  cow  in  the  pasture.     Which  had  long  horns. 

9.  Bacteria  are  microscopic  organisms.     Especially  found  where 

milk  or  some  other  substance  decomposes. 

10.  We  pass  on  down  the  street.     The  buildings   rising  two  or 

three  stories  high  on  either  side. 

11.  The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  enables  you  to  keep  your  religious  interests 

alive.     As  well  as  to  associate  with  clean  young  men. 

12.  She  wasted  her  time  on  foolish  clothes.     While  her  mother 

took  in  washing. 

13.  He  was  dressed  in   a   ridiculous   fashion.     Wearing,   for   in- 

stance, an  orange  necktie. 

14.  The  point  is  similar  to  that  of  the  ordinary  steel  pen,  except 

that  it  is  made  of  gold.     Gold  being  used  on  account  of  its 
greater  smoothness  and  durability. 
13 


COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGHT 

15.  Tire  troubles  have  been  made  less  formidable  by  the  invention 
of  a  compact,  efficient  little  vulcanizer.  A  factory  for  mak- 
ing which  IS  now  being  built. 

B.     Incomplete  Constructions 

Improve  the  following  statements.  Supply  missing 
words.  Make  sure  that  each  construction  and  each  sen- 
tence is  complete. 

1.  When  one  year  old,  my  mothnr  died 

2.  Yours  received,  and  in  reply  wou'id  say  your  order  has  been 

filled. 

3.  While  in  there  a  man  came  in  and  bought  a  quarter's  worth  of 

soap. 

4.  War  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  engineers  to  design  new 

machinery. 

5.  When  you  talk  to  a  man  look  at  him,  not  the  floor  or  ceiling. 

6.  In  writing  a  book,  an  author's  first  one  is   usually  not  very 

good. 

7.  Every  summer  while  in  high  school,  our  family  has  gone  to 

our  cottage  on  Lake  Michigan. 

8.  When  a  boy,  Mary  was  my  best  friend. 

9.  There  is,  however,  another  reason  a  person  should  know  how 

to  swim. 

10.  T  think  more  of  her  than  anyone  else. 

11.  Corrupt  laws  are  often  the  means  rich  people  obtain  the  earn- 

ings of  others. 

12.  A  htmdred  dollars  invested  in  a  warning  signal,  future  accidents 

would  be  prevented. 

13.  Electric  transmission  is  sometimes  used  on  automobiles  more  of 

an  experiment  than  anything  else. 

14.  Was  delighted  to  hear  from  you.     Glad  to  hear  you  entered  the 

wholesale  business.     Wish  you   success. 

15.  As  a  rule  people  eat  too  much.     This  point  should  be  noticed, 

and  not  overwork  the  digestive  organs. 


COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGHT 

C.     Incomplete  Logic 

The  following  sentences  are  inadequate  statements  of 
cause,   comparison,   etc.     Complete   the   thought. 

1.  His  neck  is  as  long  as  a  giraffe. 

2.  His  name  was  David  Meek,  from  New  Hampshire. 

3.  The  Pacific  Ocean  is  larger  than  any  ocean. 

4.  Because  he  never  worked  led  to  his  failure. 

5.  A  monitor  is  where  a  heavily  armored  boat  of  light  draft  can 

go  near  the  ?hore. 

6.  Democracy  is  when   people,  through   representatives,  govern 

themselves. 

7.  The  story  of  Huckleberry  Finn  is  in  reality  Mark  Twain  him- 

self. 

8.  Because  a  man  has  money  is  no  reason  why  he  should  be  lazy. 

9.  The  character  of  Sydney  Carton  is  the  real  hero  of  this  novel. 

10.  A  forester  leads  an  interesting  life  is  the  reason  I  want  to  be 

one. 

11.  Tact  is  where  a  man  anticipates  the  criticism  of  others,  and 

acts  with  discretion. 

12.  The  comfort  of  a  modern  house  is  much  greater  than  the  old- 

time  house. 

13.  Free  trade  is  when  no  revenue  is  collected  on  imports,  be- 

yond enough  to  run  the  government. 

14.  The  cost  of  room,  board,  and  tuition  is  low  at  this  school, 

compared  to  the  more  fashionable  schools. 

15.  The  theme  of  this  novel  tells  how  a  peasant,  Jean  Valjean, 

from  a  convict  comes  to  be  a  respected  citizen. 

D,     Undeveloped  Thought  and  Transitions 

Complete  the  thought  of  the  following  sentences,  and 
secure  a  smooth  transition  between  parts. 

I.  As  you  enter  this  room,  to  the  left  is  an  interesting  painting 
of  the  Canterbury  Pilgrims. 
IS 


COMPLETENESS  OF  THOUGHT 

2.  Poe  delights  in  fantastic  plots.     A  pirate's  treasure  chest  was 

discovered  in  The  Gold  Buy. 

3.  I  got  up  and  ate  a  bite  of  breakfast.     A  few  of  my  friends 

came  over.     We  went  to  play  golf. 

4.  All  the  loose  material  on  the  trail  is  carried  off  by  the  rush 

of  the  water.  The  last  time  I  was  on  it  was  in  early  sum- 
mer, and  I  found  it  in  this  rough  condition. 

5.  I  managed  to  find  the  softest  board  in  the  floor  and  went  to 

sleep.  Some  of  the  boys  found  pleasure  in  arousing  me  with 
a  shower  of  cold  water. 

6.  Under  guise  of  friendly  escort  the  Indians  accompanied  the 

inhabitants  of  the  fort  a  few  miles.  Only  three  escaped  the 
massacre. 

7.  Many  people  say  that  in  civil  engineering  it  depends  on  the 

prosperity  of  the  country;  in  hard  times  they  do  not  build 
and  in  good  times  they  do  build. 

8.  Canada   has   more   forests   than   minerals.     Canada  has   made 

only  a  start  in  the  lumber  industry.  The  minerals  are 
found,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  mountain  district  near  Lake 
Superior. 

9.  Thanksgiving  day,  as  we  are  told,  is  a  day  on  which  our  Puri- 

tan forefathers  gathered  round  the  roast  turkey  and  gave 
thanks  to  God  for  his  goodness.  Last  Thanksgiving  I  was 
at  home. 
10.  The  old  method  was  to  dig  the  holes  by  hand,  and  drop  two 
or  three  kernels  in  each  hole.  Corn  has  become  a  staple 
crop.  Machinery  is  used.  The  preparing  of  a  field  for  corn 
has  become  a  science. 


16 


UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 

Unity  means  oneness.  A  sentence  should  contain  one 
thought.  It  may  contain  two  or  more  statements  only 
when  these  are  closely  related  parts  of  a  larger  thought 
or  impression.  A  writer  should  make  certain,  first,  that 
his'  thought  has  unity ;  and  second,  that  this  unity  will 
be  obvious  to  the  reader. 

Unrelated  Ideas  in  One  Sentence 

Do  not  combine  ideas  which  have  no  obvious  relation  to 
each  other.  Place  the  ideas  in  separate  sentences. 
Or,  write  the  ideas  as  one  sentence,  making  their  rela- 
tion obvious. 

Wrong:     The  Spartans  did  not  care  for  literature,  and  lived  in 

the  southern  part  of  Greece. 
Wrong :     The  coffee  business   is  not  difficult  to  learn,   and   the 

most  important  work  in  preparing  the  coffee  for  the  market  is 

the  roasting  of  the  green  berries. 

The  simplest  method  of  correction  is  to  divide  the 
sentence. 

Right ;     The    Spartans    lived    in    the    southern    part    of    Greece. 

They  did  not  care  for  literature. 
Right :     The  coffee  business  is  not  difficult  to  learn.     The  most 

important  work  in  preparing  the  coffee  for  the  market  is  the 

roasting  of  the  green  berries. 

Another  method  of  correction  is  to  subordinate  one 
idea  to  the  other,  or  to  change  the  wording  until  the  re- 
lation between  the  ideas  is  obvious. 

Right :     The  Spartans,  who  lived  in  the  southern  part  of  Greece, 
did  not  care  for  literature. 

17 


11 


UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 

Right :  The  coffee  business  is  not  (Ufficult  to  learn,  since  the 
only  important  work  in  preparing  the  coffee  for  the  market 
is  the  roasting  of  the  green  berries. 

Exercise : 

1.  Franklin  is  often  regarded  as  the  typical  American,  and  wrote 

an  interesting  autobiography. 

2.  Coal  miners  wear  little  oil  lamps  in  their  caps,  and  they  sel- 

dom receive  very  good  wages. 

3.  My  neighbor,  Mr.  Houghton,  was  always  a  very  good  friend 

of  mine,  and  died  last  night. 

4.  I  dropped  the  clock  and  injured  the  works,  but  the  jeweler 

told  me  it  would  be  cheaper  for  me  to  buy  a  new  clock. 

5.  The  next  thing  the  camper  should  do  is  to  make  a  bed,  and 

the  branches  of  the  spruce  are  the  best. 

Excessive  Detail 

Do  not  encumber  the  main  idea  of  a  sentence  with 
superfluous  details.  Place  some  of  the  details  in  an- 
other sentence,  or  omit  them. 

Faulty :  In  the  town  in  which  I  live  there  are  several  large 
churches,  and  about  six  o'clock  one  morning,  in  a  violent 
storm,  one  of  these  churches  was  struck  by  lightning. 

Right :  In  my  home  town  there  are  several  large  churches.  One 
morning  about  six  o'clock,  in  a  violent  storm,  one  of  these 
churches  was  struck  by  lightning. 

Wrong:  In  1836,  in  Baltimore,  Poe  married  Virginia  Clemm, 
his  cousin,  who  was  hardly  more  than  a  child,  being  then  four- 
teen years  old,  while  Poe  himself  was  twenty-eight,  and  to  her 
he  wrote  much  of  his  best  verse. 

Right:  In  1836  Poe  married  Virginia  Clemm.  Poe  was  then 
twenty-eight,  and  Virginia  was  only  fourteen.  To  this  girl 
Poe  wrote  much  of  his  best  verse. 


18 


12 


UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 

Exercise: 

1.  The  house  with  the  red  tile  roof  is  the  finest  in  the  city,  and 

is  owned  by  Mr.  Saunders,  who  made  his  money  speculating 
in  land. 

2.  Then  the  engine  tilted  and  fell  over  on  one  side,  and  the  boiler 

exploded  and  added  to  the  frightful  scene. 

3.  The  deer  whose  antlers  you   see  over   the  fireplace  as   you 

enter  the  .room  was  shot  by  my  Uncle  Will,  who  is  now  in 
South  America  on  a  hunting  expedition. 

4.  The  seeds,  which  have  previously  been  soaked  in  water  over 

night,  are  now  "planted  carefully,  not  too  deep,  in  straight 
rows  sixteen  inches  apart,  the  best  time  being  in  April, 
when  the  ground  is  soft  and  has  been  thoroughly  spaded. 

5.  One  day  last  week  my  employer,  Mr.   Conway,  a  jolly,  pe- 

culiar man,  raised  my  salary,  first  telling  me  I  was  about 
to  be  discharged,  and  laughing  at  me  when  I  looked  so 
surprised. 

Stringy  Sentences  to  be  Broken  up 

,2.  Avoid  stringy  compound  sentences.  The  crude,  ram- 
bling style  which  results  from  their  use  may  be  cor- 
rected by  separating  the  material  into  shorter  sen- 
tences, or  by  subordinating  lesser  ideas  to  the  main 
thought. 

Faulty:  The  second  speaker  had  sat  quietly  waiting,  and  he 
was  a  man  of  a  dift'erent  type,  and  he  began  calmly,  yet  from 
the  very  first  words  he  showed  great  earnestness. 

Right :  The  second  speaker,  who.  had  sat  quietly  waiting,  was 
a  man  of  a  different  type.  He  began  calmly,  yet  from  his  very 
first  words  he  showed  great  earnestness. 

Faulty :  There  are  many  stops  on  the  organ  which  control  the 
tones  of  the  different  pipes  and  one  has  to  learn  how  and 
when  to  use  these  and  this  takes  time  and  practice. 

Right:  On  the  organ  are  many  stops  which  control  the  tones 
of  the  different  pipes.  To  learn  how  and  vhpn  to  use  these 
takes  time  and  practice. 

19 


12 


UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 

Faulty :  He  published  prose  fiction,  and  this  was  then  the  ac- 
cepted literary  form,  and  the  drama  was  neglected. 

Better :  He  published  prose  fiction,  which  was  then  the  accepted 
literary  form,  the  drama  being  neglected.  [This  sentence 
makes  three  statements  in  a  diminishing  series.  The  important 
idea  is  expressed  in  a  main  clause ;  a  less  important  explana- 
tion is  fitted  into  a  relative  clause ;  and  a  still  less  important 
comment  takes  a  parenthetical  phrase  at  the  end.] 

Note. —  One  of  the  crying  faults  of  the  immature  writer 
is  that  by  excessive  coordination  he  obscures  the  fine 
shades  of  meaning.  When  two  clauses  are  joined,  the 
meaning  will  very  often  be  more  exact  if  one  is  subordi- 
nated to  the  other.  For  a  list  of  subordinating  connec- 
tives, see  36. 

Exercise : 

1.  He  went  down  town,  and  it  began  to  rain,  and  so  he  decided 

to  go  to  the  city  library. 

2.  There  is  an  old  saying  which  I  have  often  heard  and  I  believe 

in  it  to  a  certain  extent,  and  it  runs  as  follows :  The  more 
you  live  at  your  wit's  end,  the  more  the  wit's  end  grows. 

3.  Our   salesman.    Air.    Powers,   has    spoken   very   favorably   of 

your  firm,  and  we  feci  that  our  relations  will  be  most  pleas- 
ant, and  the  report  of  the  commercial  agencies  is  sufficient 
evidence  of  your  good  financial  standing. 

4.  There  was  no  escaping  from  this  churn,  so  one  of  the  frogs, 

after  a  brief  struggle,  thought  that  he  might  just  as  well 
die  one  time  as  another,  and  so  he  gave  up  and  sank  to 
the  bottom. 

5.  Socrates  did  no  writing  himself,  and  the  only  information  we 

have  of  him  we  get  from  the  writings  of  his  pupils  and 
from  later  writers,  and  our  most  reliable  knowledge  comes 
from  two  of  these  writers,  Plato  and  Xenophon. 


13 


Ux\ITY  OF  THOUGHT 

Choppy  Sentences  to  be  Combined 

Do  not  use  two  or  three  short  sentences  to  express 
ideas  which  will  make  a  more  unified  impression  in  one 
sentence.  Place  subordinate  ideas  in  subordinate 
grammatical  constructions. 

Excessive  predication:  Excavating 'is  the  first  operation  in 
street  paving.  The  excavating  is  usually  done  by  means  of 
a  steam  shovel.  The  shovel  scoops  up  the  dirt  and  loads  it 
directly  into  wagons. 

Right:  Excavating,  the  first  operation  in  street  paving,  is  usually 
done  by  a  steam  shovel  which  loads  the  dirt  directly  into 
wagons. 

Monotonous :  The  doe  is  wading  along  the  shore.  She  is  nib- 
bling the  lily  pads  as  she  goes.  Now  she  moves  slowly  around 
the  point.  She  has  a  little  spotted  fawn  with  her.  The  fawn 
frolics  along  at  the  heels  of  his  mother. 

Better:  Wading  along  the  shore,  the  doe  nibbles  the  lily  pads 
by  the  way,  and  moves  slowly  around  the  point.  A  spotted 
fawn  frolics  at  her  heels. 

Primer  style :  Rooms  are  marked  on  the  floor.  These  rooms 
are  about  fourteen  feet  square. 

Better:  The  floor  is  marked  off  into  rooms  about  fourteen  feet 
square. 

Note. —  An  occasional  short  sentence  is  permissible,  even 
desirable.  Successive  short  sentences  may  be  used  to 
express  rapid  action,  or  emphatic  assertion,  or  delib- 
erate simplicity.     Otherwise,  avoid  them. 

Exercise : 

1.  Decatur  has  wide  streets.     The  streets  are  paved  with  brick, 

asphalt,  and  creosote  blocks. 

2.  Sixteen   posts  are  set  in  a  row.     All  of  these  are  at  equal 

intervals. 

3.  The  boat  approaches  the  leeward  side  of  the  ship.     This  side 

is  the  side  protected  from  the  wind. 


14 


UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 

4.  The  Scientific  American  reports  the  progress  of  science.     It 

explains  new  inventions.  It  makes  practical  applications 
of  scientific  principles. 

5.  The  beans  are  usually  harvested  about  the  middle  of  Septem- 

ber. They  are  cut  when  the  plants  turn  color  at  the  roots 
and  the  beans  turn  white.  They  are  cut  by  a  bean-cutter 
which  takes  two  rows  at  a  time. 


Excessive  Coordination 

In  structure  a  sentence  may  be 

A.  Simple :     The  rain  fell. 

B.  Compound :     The  rain  continued  and  the  stream  rose. 

C.  Complex :     When  the  rain  ceased,  the  flood  came. 

In  B,  the  clauses  are  of  almost  equal  importance,  and 
the  first  is  coordinated  with  the  second.  In  C,  the 
clauses  are  not  of  equal  importance,  and  the  first  is 
subordinated  to  the  second.  And  is  a  coordinating 
conjunction.  When  is  a  subordinating  conjunction. 
For  a  list  of  connectives  see  36. 

14.  Do  not  use  coordination  when  subordination  will  secure 
a  more  clear  and  emphatic  unit  of  thought.  Especially 
do  not  coordinate  a  main  idea  with  an  explanatory  de- 
tail. The  speech  of  children  connects  all  ideas,  impor- 
tant and  unimportant,  with  and.  Discriminating  writers 
place  minor  ideas  in  subordinate  clauses,  consign  still 
less  important  ideas  to  participial  or  prepositional 
phrases,  and  omit  trivial  details  altogether. 

Childish :  I  went  down  town  and  saw  a  crowd  standing  in  the 
street,  and  wanted  to  know  what  was  the  matter,  and  so  I 
went  up  and  asked  a  man. 

Right:     When  I  went  down  town,  I  saw  a  crowd  standing  in 

Z2 


14 


UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 

the  street,  and  since  I  wanted  to  know  what  was  the  matter, 
I  asked  a  man.  [Two  clauses  are  subordinated  by  the  use  of 
when  and  since.  This  change  aboHshes  two  ands.  The  words 
went  up  and  are  struck  out.  One  and  remains,  and  deserves 
to  remain,  for  it  joins  two  ideas  which  are  truly  coordinate.] 

Main  idea  not  emphasized ;  I  talked  with  an  old  man  and  his 
name  was  Ned. 

Better:  I  talked  with  an  old  man  named  Ned.  [A  participial 
phrase  replaces  a  clause.  The  name  is  now  subordinated  to 
the  man.] 

Main  idea  not  emphasized  :  Developing  is  the  next  step  in  pre- 
paring the  film,  and  it  is  very  important. 

Better :  Developing,  the  next  step  in  preparing  the  film,  is  very 
important.  [An  appositional  phrase  replaces  tlie  first  predi- 
cate] 

Main  idea  not  emphasized:  They  began  their  perilous  journey, 
and  they  had  four  horses. 

Right  [emphasizing  perilous  journey]  :  With  four  horses  they 
began  their  perilous  journey.  [A  prepositional  phrase  re- 
places a  clause.] 

Right  [emphasizing  haling  the  horses]  :  When  they  began 
their  perilous  journey,  they  had  four  horses.  [A  subordinate 
clause  replaces  a  main  clause.] 

Capable  of  greater  unity :  The  frog  is  a  stupid  animal,  and 
may  be  caught  with  a  hook  baited  with  red  flannel.  [Is  the 
writer  trying  to  tell  us  hozv  to  catch  frogs,  or  merely  that 
frogs  are  stupid?  Coordination  makes  the  two  ideas  appear 
equally  important.] 

Right  [emphasizing  frogs  arc  stupid]  :  The  fact  that  the  frog 
can  be  caught  with  a  hook  baited  with  red  flannel  proves  his 
stupidity. 

Right  [emphasizing  hozv  to  catch  frogs]  :  The  frog,  being 
stupid,  will  bite  at  a  piece  of  red  flannel. 

Exercise : 

I.  Men  were  sent  to  Panama  and  could  not  live  in  such  unsani- 
tary conditions. 


15 

UNITY, G.F.  TH'OaOHT  "     ' 

2.  When  a  letter  came  ahtf  it  bore 'a  familiar  handwriting,  I  al- 

ways opened  it  eagerly. 

3.  West  Hickory  is  the  name  of  the  place  where  the  tannery  is 

situated,  and  it  is  a  laboring  man's  town. 

4.  She  wore  a  dress  and  it  was  silk,  and  cost  her  father  a  lot 

of  money. 

5.  Every  race  horse  has  a  care  taker  or  groom,  and  this  man 

spends  all  his  time  and  makes  the  horse  comfortable. 

Faulty  Subordination  of  the  Main  Thought 

15.  Do  not  put  the  principal  statement  of  a  sentence  in  a 
subordinate  clause  or  phrase.  This  violation  of  tinity 
is  sometimes  called  "  upside-down  subordination". 

Faulty:  I  was  going  down  the  street,  when  I  heard  an  explo- 
sion. [If  hearing  the  explosion  is  the  main  thought,  it  should 
be  placed  in  the  main  clause.] 

Right:  When  I  was  going  down  the  street,  I  heard  an  explo- 
sion. 

Faulty :  Longstreet  received  orders  to  attack  the  Federal  right 
wing,  which  he  did  immediately. 

Right:  As  soon  as  Longstreet  received  orders,  he  attacked  the 
Federal  right  wing. 

Faulty:  1  suspected  that  it  would  rain,  although  I  did  not 
take  an  umbrella. 

Right :  Although  I  suspected  that  it  would  rain,  I  did  not  take 
an  umbrella. 

Exercise : 

1.  An  old  man  used  to  work  for  us.  who  died  yesterday. 

2.  He  became  angry,  saying  he  positively  refused  to  go. 

3.  He  is  a  bright  boy,  although  I  should  not  want  to  trust  him 

with  my  pocketbook. 

4.  He  had  an  ambition  which  was  to  become  the  best  lawyer  in 

the  state  by  the  time  he  v/as  forty  years  old. 

5.  The  cable  breaks  and  the  elevator  starts  to  drop,  when  the 

safety  device  always  operates  at  once  to  prevent  an  accident. 


Los  A„"m  wwenoBT 
^s  Angeles  24,  California 

Subordination  Thwarted  by   and 

16.  Do  not  attach  to  a  main  clause  by  means  of  and,  a 
word,  phrase,  or  clause  which  you  intend  shall  be 
subordinate.  The  presence  of  and  thwarts  subordi- 
nation. 

Wrong:     Major  went  to  bed,  and  leaving  the  work  unfinished. 
Right:     Major  went  to  bed,  leaving  the  work  unfinished. 
Wrong:     He  ran  home  and  with  coat  tails  flying. 
Right:     He  ran  home  with  coat  tails  flying. 

Exercise : 

1.  They  denied  my  request,  and  giving  no  reason  for  the  refusal. 

2.  He  gave  me  his  answer  and  in  few  words. 

3.  The  girl  stood  on  the  edge  of  the  cliff,  and  thus   showing 

that  she  was  not  afraid. 

4.  A  telegraph  line  is  leased  by  the  Associated  Press,  and  thus 

giving  the  newspapers  quick  service. 

5.  When  the  summer  passed,  the  fisherman  returned  home  for 

the  winter,   and  where  he  renewed  his  acquaintance  with 
the  villagers. 

The  and  which   construction 

L7.   Use  and  which  (or  but  which),  and  who  (or  but  who) 
only  between   relative  clauses   similar   in  form.     Be- 
tween a  main  clause  and  a  relative  clause,  and  or 
but  thwarts  subordination. 

Wrong:     This  is  an  important  problem,  and  which  we  shall  not 

find  easy  to  solve. 
Right:     This  is  an  important  problem,  which  we  shall  not  find 

easy  to  solve. 
Right:     This  problem  is  one  which  is  important,  and  which  we 

cannot  easily  solve. 
Wrong:     Les  Miserahks  is  a  novel  of  great  interest  and  which 

everybedy  should  read. 

25 


18 

UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 

Right:     Les  Miserables  is  a   novel   of   great   interest,   and  one 
which  everybody  should  read. 

Wrong :     Their  chief  opponent  was  Winter,  a  shrewd  politician, 

but  who  is  now  less  popular  than  he  was. 
Right:     Their  chief  opponent  was  Winter,  a  shrewd  politician, 

who  is  now  less  popular  than  he  was. 

Note. —  Rule  17  is  sometimes  briefly  stated:  "Do  not 
use  and  zvhich  unless  you  have  already  used  which  in 
the  sentence."  This  statement  is  generally  true,  but 
an  exception  must  be  made  for  sentences  like  the  fol- 
lowing: Right:  "He  told  me  what  countries  he  had 
visited,  and  which  ones  he  liked  most." 

Exercise : 

1.  Just  outside  is  a  small  porch  looking  out  over  the  street,  and 

which  can  be   used   for  sleeping  purposes. 

2.  She  is  a  woman  of  pleasing  personality,  and  who  can  con- 

verse intelligently. 

3.  It  is  a  difficult  task,  but  which  can  be  accomplished  in  time. 

4.  He  is  a  good-looking  man,  but  who  is  very  snobbish. 

5.  The    rule   made   by   the   conference   of   college   professors    in 

1896,  and  which  has  been   followed  ever  since,  applies  to 
the  case  we  are  considering. 

Unity.  Thwarted  by  Punctuation 

The  Comma  Splice 

18.  Do  not  splice  two  independent  statements  by  means  of 
a  comma.  Write  two  sentences.  Or,  if  the  two  state- 
ments together  form  a  unit  of  thought,  combine  them 
(i)  by  a  comma  plus  a  conjunction,  (2)  by  a  semi- 
colon, or  (3)  by  reducing  one  of  the  statements  to  a 
phrase  or  a  subordinate  clause. 

Wrong :     The   town   has   two   railroads,  it   was    founded   when 
oil  was  discovered, 

26 


I 


UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 

Right:     The  town  has  two  railroads.     It  was  founded  when  oil 

was  discovered. 
Wrong:     The   speed   of   the  car   seemed   slower  than   it   really 

was,   this   was   due,   no   doubt,   to   the   absence   of    all    noise. 

[Here  are  three  commas.     The  reader  cannot  quickly  discover 

which  one  marks  the  great  division  of  thought.] 
Right :     The  speed  of  the  car  seemed  slower  than  it  really  was. 

This  was  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  absence  of  all  noise. 
Wrong:     The  winters  were  long  and  cold,  nothing  could  live 

without  shelter. 
Right :     The  winter?  were  long  and  cold.     Nothing  could  live 

without  shelter. 
Right:     The  winters  were  long  and  cold,  and  nothing  could  live 

without  shelter  [For  the  use  of  the  comma,  see  91a]. 
Right :     The   winters    were   long   and   cold ;    nothing   could    live 

without  shelter  [For  the  use  of  the  semicolon  see  92]. 
Right:     The  winters  were  so  long  and  cold  that  nothing  could 

live  without  shelter. 

Exception. —  Short  coordinate  clauses  which  are  parallel 
in  structure  and  leave  a  unified  impression,  may  be 
joined  by  commas,  even  though  the  conjunctions  be 
omitted. 

Right :  All  was  excitement.  The  ducks  quacked,  the  pigs 
squealed,  the  dogs  barked.  [The  general  idea  excitement 
gives  the  three  clauses  a  certain  unity.] 

Exercise : 

1.  The  key  is  turned  to  the  right,  this  unlocks  the  door 

2.  The  author  keeps  one  guessing,  there  is  no  hint  how  the  story 

will  end. 

3.  The  farmer  is  independent,  he  has  no  task-master. 

4.  There  has  been  a  change  of  government,   in    fact  there  has 

been  a  revolution. 

5.  Lamb  had  failed  in  poetry,  in  the  drama,  and  in  the  novel,  in 

the  essay,  at  last,  he  succeeded. 

27 


18 


19 


UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 


19.  EXERCISE  IN  UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 

A.     The  Comma  Splice 

Rewrite  the  following  material  in  sentences  each  of 
which  is  a  unit  of  thought.  Most  of  the  statements 
should  be  summarily  cut  apart.  If  you  decide  that 
others  taken  together  have  unity  of  thought,  combine 
them  (i)  by  a  comma  plus  a  conjunction,  (2)  by  a 
semicolon,  or  (3)  by  reducing  one  of  the  statements  to 
a  phrase  or  a  subordinate  clause. 

1.  The  canoe  is  long  and  narrow,  it  is  made  of  birch  bark. 

2.  1  decided  to  serve  tea,  of  course  cream  and  sugar  would  be 

needed. 

3.  Some  men  hunt  rabbits  for  market  purposes  only,  they  are  the 

sportsman's  enemies. 

4.  This  city  furnished  many  boats  for  the  siege  of  Calais,  when 

these  boats  returned  thej'  brought  the  plague  with  them. 

5.  The  bottom  of  the  box  is  then  put  in,  it  is  nailed  to  the  sides. 

6.  It  is  not  easy  to  become  a  good  musician,  one  must  practice 

continually. 

7.  The  Northern  and  the  Southern  states  could  not  be  separate 

nations,  there  was  no  natural  boundary  between  them. 

8.  The  telephone  is  a  great  invention,  it  is  very  useful  to  the 

farmer, 
g.  Why  would  no  one  come  to  help  me,  my  feet  ached  and  I  was 
thirsty. 

10.  I   know  a  girl   who  has  a  cynical   disposition,   she  is   always 

criticizing. 

11.  I  went  into  the  office  hopeless,  a  dime  stood  between  me  and 

starvation. 

12.  The  construction  of  the  bridge  has  much  to  do  with  the  tone  of 

a  violin,  it  should  be  lower  on  the  side  nearest  the  E  string. 

13.  A   private   expense   account   docs   not   require   much   labor  or 

time,  just  one  hour  a  week  will  suffice  to  keep  track  of  all 
expenditures. 

28 


UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 

14.  We  offer  you  sixty  dollars  a  month  to  start,  this  is  all  we  can 

afford  to  pay  at  preserit. 

15.  He  wanted  personal  success  but  would  not   shirk  a   duty  or 

harm  any  one  in  any  way  to  gain  that  success,  at  all  times  he 
forgot  his  own  personal  importance  and  was  ready  to  do  any 
task  set  before  him. 

B.     One  Thought  in  a  Sentence 

By  dividing,  subordinating,  or  logically  combining  the 
following   statements,    secure   unity   of   thought. 

1.  She   was   born   in   .A.tlanta,    Georgia,   on    September   30,    1902, 

where  she  has  lived  ever  since  and  is  now  well  known. 

2.  Franklin  was  kindly,   shrewd,   and  capable,  and   was  the   rep- 

resentative of  the  United  States  in  France. 

3.  She  said  that  yirs.  Brown  was  ill  and  that  she  was  just  caring 

for  the  baby,  she  loved  babies  anyway,  she  said. 

4.  One  Sunday  afternoon  there  was  an  excursion  to  Beaver  and 

several  of  us  decided  to  go  and  take  our  lunches  and  return 
on  the  eight  o'clock  car. 

5.  He  gave  me   the   dimensions   of  the    room.     The   dimensions 

were  ten  by  twelve  feet. 

6.  Good  grades  may  be  obtained  in  two  ways :  by  honest  work, 

and  by  cheating ;  however  any  one  who  cheats  is  doing  him- 
self more  harm  than  good. 

7.  The  w'all  studding   is  made  of  two-by-fours.     These  two-by- 

fours  are  placed  sixteen  inches  apart. 

8.  The  returning  Crusaders  brought  with  them  oriental  learning, 

and  found  the  peasantry  impoverished. 

9.  The  articles  in  this  magazine  are  of  high  quality.     The  articles 

are  well  written  and  attractively  illustrated. 

10.  A  Japanese  woman  going  abroad  at  night  must  carry  a  lighted 

lamp  and  must  not  speak  to  any  one,  women  do  not  have 
much  freedom  in  Japan. 

11.  The  sugar  beets  are  irrigated  by  river  water.     They  are  irri- 

gated by  means  of  furrows.     The  furrows  run  between  the 
rows  of  beets.    The  beets  are  irrigated  once  a  week. 
29 


19 


UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 

12.  The  referee  asked  each  captain  if  his  men  were  ready,  after 

which  he  blew  the  whistle,  and  the  game  was  on,  and  within 
five  minutes  our  team  scored  a  touchdown. 

13.  The  ground  should  be  harrowed  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is 

plowed.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  harrow  the  ground  on  the  same 
day  that  it  is  plowed,  or  on  the  day  following. 

14.  Choose  the  middle   of   the   prepared  ground,   which   is   about 

eighty-five  by  fifty  feet,  as  your  starting  point,  measure 
twenty-four  feet  east  and  west  and  set  the  net  posts;  then, 
after  marking  off  the  different  courts  with  tape,  you  are 
ready  for  a  good  game  of  tennis. 

15.  There  are  two  places  on  the  island  suitable  for  plays:  one  in 

the  bungalow  and  the  other  down  on  the  sandy  point ;  the 
latter  lends  itself  to  the  purpose  readily,  there  are  two  trees 
which  make  a  splendid  support  for  wires  on  which  to  hang 
the  curtain,  and  just  east  of  these  the  ground  slopes  enough 
to  make  a  natural  amphitheater. 

C.     Excessive  Coordination 

The  ideas  in  the  following  sentences  are  loosely  strung 
together  with  coordinating  conjunctions.  Place  the  im- 
portant idea  in  the  main  clause.  Subordinate  other 
ideas  by  reducing  each  to  a  dependent  clause,  or  a 
phrase,  or  a  word. 

1.  Chris  has  a  new  coat  and  it  is  double-breasted. 

2.  I  had  a  dog,  and  his  name  was  Scratcher. 

3.  He  gave  a  laugh  but  it  was  forced. 

4.  The  woodcock  is  so  foolish  and  deliberately  walks  into  a  trap. 

5.  The   engineers    fastened    rafts   to   the    piles,    and   which   were 

pulled  up  when  the  tide  rose. 

6.  Students  often  sit  all  doubled  up,  and  raising  their  feet  high 

on  the  table. 

7.  Dunlap  is  carrying  a  palette,  but  without  any  paint  on  it. 

8.  The  government  had  been  successful  in  its  suit,  and  the  tobacco 

trust  was  dissolved. 

30 


UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 

9.  The  British  troops  had  no  protection  against  poisonous  gas, 
and  the  use  of  gas  by  the  enemy  was  unexpected. 

10.  I  make  it  a  rule  to  study  one  thing  at  least  an  hour  and  no 

long  rest  between. 

11.  The  concrete  is  spread  in  a  layer,  and  this  is  about  nine  inches 

thick,  and  the  width  being  ten  feet. 

12.  Rockwell  is  our  postmaster,  and  is  accommodatmg,  but  he  has 

a  disposition  to  be  curious. 

13.  At  the  Gatun  Dam  there  arc  concrete  locks,  and  the  purpose 

of  these  is  to  lift  vessels  into  the  lake. 

14.  They  say  to  touirists  that  objects  are  historic  but  which  are 

no^  historic  at  all. 

15.  i  was  lying  quietly  in  the  hammock,  and   I  happened  to  look 

up  in  the  tree,  and   there   was   a  green   bird  and  eating  a 
,    cherry. 

16.  They  disputed   for  a  time,   and  afterward  the  officer  became 

angry,  and  whipped  out  his  sword. 

17.  A  mirage  is  an  illusion  and  the  traveler  thinks  he  sees  water 

when  there  really  is  none. 

D.     Upside-down  Subordination 

In  the  following  sentences  the  important  idea  is  buried 
in  a  subordinate  clause  or  phrase.  Rescue  this  main 
idea,  express  it  in  the  main  clause,  and  if  possible  sub- 
ordinate the  rest  of  the  sentence  to  it. 

1.  I  spoke  to  her  on  the  street,  when  she  did  not  answer. 

2.  She  thanked  me  for  my  assistance,  also  asking  me  to  come 

and  visit  her  the  following  Simday. 

3.  The  water  froze  in  the  buckets,  although  they  did  not  burst. 

4.  The  crows  cawed  angrily  and  circling  around  in  one  place. 

5.  He  is  threatened  with  tuberculosis,  although  he  will  not  sleep 

in  the  open  air. 

6.  We  had  hacked  the  bark,  the  tree  dying  after  a  few  months. 

7.  One  of  the  contestants  was  from  Wendover  College,  who  re- 

ceived the  prize. 

31 


UNITY  OF  THOUGHT 

8.  You  ask  a  person  what  a  spiral  staircase  is,  when  he  will  go 

to  showing  you  by  motions  of  his  hand. 

9.  It  was  about  three  o'clock,  and   we  decided  to  return  home, 

which  we  did. 

10.  The  plumber  came,  stopping  the  leak  as  soon  as  he  arrived. 

11.  Benton  sold  stamps,  in  which  business  he  grew  rich. 

12.  The  sun's  heat  beats  down  upon  the  brick  tenements,  which  is 

terrible. 

13.  The    chemist    tested    the    purity    of    the    water,    init    which    he 

found  unfit  to  drink. 

14.  Montaigne  wrote  an  essay  on  "  Solitude ",  where  he  pointed 

out  the  disadvantages  of  travel. 

15.  The  house  is  set  close  to  the  edge  of  the  blufT,  overlooking  a 

wide  bend  of  the  Alleghany  River. 

16.  Things  had  been  going  from  bad  to  worse  among  the  Indians, 

and  some  Sioux  were  entertaining  a  few  Chippewas,  and 
murdered  them,  when  the  government  took  a  hand  in  the 
affair. 

17.  The  slight  knowledge  of  metals  and  wide-awake  observation  of 

an  inexperienced  miner  discovered  gold  in  Arizona. 


[ 


32 


CLEARNESS  OF  THOUGHT 

Clearness  is  fundamental.  The  writer  should  be  con- 
tent not  when  his  meaning  may  be  understood,  but  only 
when  his  meaning  cannot  be  misunderstood.  He  may 
attain  this  entire  clearness  by  giving  attention  to  five 
matters : 

■  -  « 

Reference   (20-23) 
Coherence    (24-28) 
Parallel  Structure  (30-31) 
Consistency  (32-35) 
Use  of  Connectives   (36-38) 

REFERENCE 

By  the  use  of  pronouns,  participles,  and  other  de- 
pendent words,  language  becomes  flexible  and  free. 
But  each  dependent  part  must  refer  without  confusion 
to  a  word  which  is  reasonably  near,  and  properly  ex- 
pressed. Ordinarily  a  reader  expects  a  pronoun  or  a 
participle  to  refer  to  the  nearest  noun  (or  pronoun)  or 
to  an  emphatic  noun. 

Divided  Reference 

20.  A  pronoun  should  be  placed  near  the  word  to  which  it 
refers,  and  separated  from  words  to  which  it  might 
falsely  seem  to  refer.  If  this  method  does  not  secure 
clearness,  discard  the  pronoun  and  change  the  sen- 
tence structure. 

Uncertain   reference  of  zvliich:     He  dropped  the  bundle  in   the 
mud  which  he  was  carrying  to  his  mother.     [The  reader  for 

33 


20 


CLEARNESS  BY  REFERENCE 

a  moment  refers  the  pronoun  to  the  wrong  noun.  Bring 
zvhich  nearer  to  its  proper  antecedent  bundle.] 

Right:  He  dropped  in  the  mud  the  bundle  which  he  was  carry- 
ing to  his  mother. 

Vague  reference  of  this:  My  faihire  in  mathematics  was  seri- 
ous. Aly  grades  in  EngHsh,  history,  and  Latm  were  good 
enough.  But  this  brought  down  my  average.  [1  hisf  What 
this'/'  Five  nouns  intrude  between  the  pronoun  this  and  its 
proper  antecedent  failure.] 

Right :  In  Enghsh,  history,  and  Latin  I  received  fairly  good 
grades.  But  in  mathematics  I  received  a  failure.  This  brought 
down  my  average. 

Remote  reference  of  it:  If  you  want  to  make  a  good  speech, 
take  your  hands  out  of  your  pockets,  open  your  mouth  wide, 
and  throw  yourself  into  it. 

Right:  If  yon  want  to  make  a  good  speech,  take  your  hands 
out  of  your  pockets,  open  your  mouth  wide,  and  throw  your- 
self into  what  you  are  saying.  [Or,  better]  Take  your  hands 
out  of  your  pockets,  open  your  mouth  wide,  and  throw  your- 
self into  the  speech. 

Ambiguous  reference  of  he:  John  spoke  to  the  stranger,  and 
he  was  very  surly. 

Right:  John  spoke  to  the  stranger,  who  was  very  surly.  [Or] 
John  spoke  in  a  surly  manner  to  the  stranger. 

Note. —  Tlie  reference  of  relative  and  demonstrative  pro- 
nouns is  largely  dependent  upon  their  position.  The 
reference  of  a  personal  pronoun  (he,  she,  they,  etc.)  is 
not  so  inuch  dependent  upon  its  position,  the  maiir  con- 
sideration being  that  the  antecedent  shall  be  emphatic 
(See  the  next  article.) 

Exercise : 

1.  He  was  driving  an  old  mule  attached  to  a  cart  that  was  blind 

in  one  eye. 

2.  There  is  a  grimy  streak  on  the  wall  over  the  radiator  which 

can  be  removed  only  with  great  difficulty. 
34 


21 


CLEARNESS  BY  REFERENCE 

3.  The   feet  of   Chinese  girls   were   bandaged   so   tightly   when 

they  were  babies  that  they  could  not  grow. 

4.  He  gave  me  a  receipt  for  the  money  which  he  told  me  to  keep. 

5.  After  the  pictures  have  been  taken  and   the   him  has  been 

removed,   they   are   sent   to   the   developing    room   where   it 
is  developed  and  dried. 

Weak  Reference 

21.  Do  not  allow  a  pronoun  to  refer  to  a  word  not  likely  to 
be  central  in  the  reader's  thought;  a  word,  for  example, 
in  the  possessive  case,  or  in  a  parenthetical  expres- 
sion, or  in  a  compound,  or  not  expressed  at  all. 
Make  the  pronoun  refer  to  an  emphatic  word. 

Wrong :  When  a  poor  woman  came  to  Jane  Addams'  famous 
Mull  House,  she  always  gave  help.  [Poor  woman  and  Hull 
House  are  the  emphatic  words,  to  which  any  pronoun  used 
later  is  mstmctively  referred  by  the  reader.] 

Right :  When  a  poor  woman  came  to  Jane  Addams'  famous 
Hull  House,  she  always  received  help.  [Or]  When  a  poor 
woman  came  to  Hull  House,  Jane  Addams  always  gave 
help. 

Wrong :  Tn  biology,  which  is  the  study  of  plants  and  animals, 
we  find  that  they  are  made  up  of  unitary  structures  called 
cells.  [Since  the  words  plants  and  animals  occur  only  in  a 
parenthetical  clause,  the  reader  is  surprised  to  find  them  used 
as  an  antecedent] 

Right :  In  the  study  of  biology  we  find  that  plants  and  animals 
are  made  up  of  unitary  structures  called  cells. 

Wrong:  This  old  scissors-grinder  sharpens  them  for  the  whole 
neighborhood.  [The  center  of  interest  in  the  reader's  mind 
is  a  man,  not  scissors.] 

Right :  This  old  scissors-grinder  sharpens  scissors  for  the 
whole  neighborhood. 

Wrong :  I  always  liked  engineers,  and  I  have  chosen  that  as 
my  profession. 

35 


22 

CLEARNESS  BY  REFERENCE 

Right :  I  always  liked  engineering,  and  I  have  chosen  it  as 
my  profession. 

Absurd:  When  the  baby  is  through  drinking  milk,  it  should 
be  disconnected  and  put  in  boding  water.  [The  central  idea 
in  the  reader's  mind  is  baby,  not  milk-bottle.  The  writer 
may  have  been  thinking  about  the  bottle,  but  he  did  not  make 
the  word  emphatic ;  in  fact,  he  did  not  express  it  at  all.] 

Right:  When  the  baby  is  through  drinking  milk,  the  bottle 
should  be  taken  apart  and  put  in  boiling  water. 

Note. —  Ordinarily,  do  not  refer  to  the  title  in  the  first  Hne 
of  a  theme.  The  reader  expects  you  to  assert  some- 
thing, and  face  forward,  not  to  turn  back  to  what  you 
have  said  in  the  title. 

Faulty :  Color  Photography 

I   am  interested  in  this  new  development  of   science.     For 
a  long  time  I  .  .  . 
Right:  Color   Photography 

Taking  pictures  in  color  has  long  appealed  to  me  as  an  in- 
teresting possibility  .  .  . 

Exercise : 

1.  In  Shakespeare's  play  Othello  he  makes  lago  a  fiend. 

2.  The   noodle-cutter   is   a   kitchen   device   which   saves   time    in 

making  this  troublesome  dish. 

3.  The  life  of  a  forester  is  interesting,  and  I  intend  to  follow 

that  profession. 

4.  He  took  down  his  great-grandfather's  old   sword,  who  had 

carried  it  at  Bunker  Hill. 

5.  I  was  always  making  experiments  in  science,  and  I  naturally 

acquired  a  liking  for  periodicals  of  that  nature. 

Broad  Reference 

22.    Do  not  use  a  pronoun  to  refer  broadly  to  a  general  idea. 
Supply  a  definite  antecedent  or  abandon  the  pronoun. 

36 


22 


CLEARNESS  BY  REFERENCE 

Wrong:  The  tapper  strikes  the  gong,  which  continues  as  long 
as  the  push  button  is  pressed.  [The  writer  intends  that 
zvliich  shall  refer  to  the  entire  precedhig  clause,  but  the  ref- 
erence is  intercepted  by  the  word  gotig.] 

Right  [supplying  a  definite  antecedent]  :  The  tapper  strikes 
the  gong,  a  process  which  continues  as  long  as  the  push  but- 
ton is  pressed.  [Or,  abandoning  the  pronoun]  The  tapper 
strikes  the  gong  as  long  as  the  push  button  is  pressed. 

Wrong:  Read  the  directions  which  are  printed  on  the  bottle 
and  it  may  save  you  from  making  a  mistake. 

Right  [supplying  a  definite  antecedent]  :  Read  the  directions 
which  are  printed  on  the  bottle.  This  precaution  may  save 
you  from  making  a  mistake.  [Or,  abandoning  the  pronoun] 
Reading  the  directions  on  the  bottle  may  prevent  a  mistake. 

Wrong:  The  managers  told  him  they  would  increase  his  sal- 
ary if  he  would  represent  them  in  South  America.  He  re- 
fused that. 

Right:  The  managers  told  him  they  would  increase  his  salary 
if  he  would  represent  them  in  South  America.  He  refused 
the  offer. 

Exception. —  It  cannot  be  maintained  that  a  pronoun 
must  alzvays  have  one  definite  word  for  its  antecedent. 
Many  of  the  best  English  authors  occasionally  use  a 
pronoun  to  refer  to  a  clause.  But  the  reference  must 
always  be  clear. 

Note. —  Impersonal  constructions  must  be  used  with  cau- 
tion. "  It  is  raining "  is  correct,  although  it  has  no 
antecedent.  We  desire  that  the  antecedent  shall  be 
vague,  impersonal.  But  unnecessary  use  of  the  indefi- 
nite it,  you,  or  they  should  be  avoided. 

Faulty:     It  says  in  our  history  that  Columbus  was  an  Italian. 
Right:     Our  history  says  that  Columbus  was  an  Italian. 
Not  complimentary  to  the  reader:     You  aren't  hanged   nowa- 
days for  stealing. 

37 


23 

CLEARNESS  BY  REFERENCE 

Right :  No  one  is  hanged  nowadays  for  steahng. 
FauUy :  They  are  noted  for  their  tact  in  France. 
Right :     The  French  are  noted  for  their  tact. 

Exercise : 

1.  You  use  little  slang  in  your  paper  which  is  commendable. 

2.  They  had  no  reinforcements  which  caused  them  to  lose  the 

battle. 

3.  The  carbon  must  be  removed   from  pig  iron  to  make  pure 

steel,  and  that  is  done  by  terrific  heat. 

4.  Our  stenographer  spends  most  of  her  spare  time  at  a  cheap 

movie  theater,  which  is  in  itself  an  index  of  her  character. 

5.  It  is  doubtful  in  the  minds  of  some  whether  commercialized 

athletics  is  worth  the  trouble. 

Dangling  Participle  or  Gerund 

23.  A  participle,  being  dependent,  must  refer  to  a  noun  or 
pronoun.  The  noun  or  pronoun  should  be  within  the 
sentence  which  contains  the  participle,  and  should  be 
so  conspicuous  that  the  participle  will  be  associated 
with  it  instantly  and  without  confusion. 

Wrong:  Coming  in  on  the  train,  the  high  school  building  is 
seen.     [Is  the  building  coming  in?     If  not,  who  is?] 

Right:  Coming  in  on  the  train,  one  sees  the  high  school 
building. 

A  sentence  containing  a  dangling  participle  may  be 
corrected  ( i )  by  giving  the  word  to  which  the  parti- 
ciple refers  a  conspicuous  position  in  the  sentence,  or 
(2)  by  replacing  the  participial  phrase  by  some  other 
construction. 

Wrong:     Having  taken   our   seats,   the   umpire   announced  the 

batteries. 
Right:    Having  taken  our  seats,  we  heard  the  umpire  announce 

38 


CLEARNESS  BY  REFERENCE 

the  batteries.  [Or]  When  we  had  taken  our  seats,  the  um- 
pire announced  the  batteries. 

Wrong:  She  was  for  a  long  time  sick,  caused  by  overwork. 
[The  participle  caused  should  not  modify  sick.  A  participle 
is  used  as  an  adjective,  and  should  therefore  modify  a 
noun.] 

Right  —  using  an  adjectival  modifier: 

She  had  a  long  sickness,  J  ,     ^        ^  ^overwork, 
l^due  to       J 

Right  —  using  an  adverbial  modifier  : 

fbecause  of       ] 

She  was  for  a  long  time  sick  J  owing  to  loverwork. 

I  on  account  ofj 

When  a  gerund  phrase  (in  passing,  while  speaking, 
etc.)  implies  the  action  of  a  special  agent,  indicate 
what  the  agent  is.  Otherwise  the  phrase  will  be 
dangling. 

Faulty:  In  talking  to  Mr.  Brown  the  other  day,  he  told  me 
that  you  intend  to  buy  a  car. 

Better ;  In  talking  to  Mr.  Brown  the  other  day,  I  learned 
that  you  intend  to  buy  a  car. 

Faulty:  The  address  was  concluded  by  reciting  a  passage  from 
Wordsworth. 

Better:  The  speaker  concluded  his  address  by  reciting  a  pas- 
sage from  Wordsworth.  [Or]  The  address  was  concluded 
by  the  recitation  of  a  passage  from  Wordsworth. 

Note. —  Two  other  kinds  of  dangling  modifier,  treated 
elsewhere  in  this  book,  may  be  briefly  mentioned  here. 
A  phrase  beginning  with  the  adjective  due  should  refer 
to  a  noun;  otherwise  the  phrase  is  left  dangling  (See  5 
Note).  An  elliptical  sentence  (one  from  which  words 
are  omitted)  is  faulty  when  one  of  the  elements  is  left 
dangling  (See  3). 

39 


24 

CLEARNESS  BY  COHERENCE 

Faulty:     I  was  late  due  to  carelessness  [Use  because  of]. 
Ludicrous:     My    shoestring    always    breaks    when    hurrying    to 
the  office  at  eight  o'clock  [Say  when  I  am  hurrying]. 

Exercise : 

1.  Coming  out  of  the  house,  a  street  car  is  seen. 

2.  While   engaged   in   conversation   with   my    host  and   hostess, 

the  maid  placed  upon  the  table  a  steaming  leg  of  lamb. 

3.  A   small  quantity  of  gold  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  a    few 

drops  of  turpentme,  using  the  spatula  to  work  it  smooth. 

4.  After    being    in    the    oven    twenty    minutes,    open    the    door. 

When  fully  baked,  you  are  ready  to  put  the  sauce  on  the 
puddmg. 

5.  Entering   the   store,    a    soda    fountain    is    observed.     Passing 

down  the  aisle,  a  candy  counter  comes  into  view.  The 
rear  of  the  store  is  bright  and  pleasant,  caused  by  a  sky- 
light. 

COHERENCE 

The  verb  cohere  means  to  stick  or  hold  firmly  to- 
gether. And  the  noun  coherence  as  applied  to  writing 
means  a  close  and  natural  sequence  of  parts.  Order 
is  essential  to  clearness. 

General  Incoherence 

24.  Every  part  of  a  sentence  must  have  a  clear  and  natural 
connection  with  the  adjoining  part.  Like  or  related 
parts  should  normally  be  placed  together. 

Bring   related    ideas   together :     Little    Helen    stood   beside   the 

horse  wearing  white  stockings  and  slippers. 
Right:     Little    Helen,    in    white    stockings    and    slippers,    stood 

beside  the  horse. 
Keep  unlike  ideas  apart:     The  colors  of  purple  and  green  are 

pleasing  to  the  eye  as  found  in  the  thistle. 
Right :     The  purple  and  green  colors  of  the  thistle  are  pleasing. 


25 


CLEARNESS  BY  COHERENCE 

Distribute  unrelated  modihers,  instead  of  bunching  them :  I 
found  a  heap  of  snow  on  my  bed  in   the  morn- 

ing which   had    drifted    in    through    the    window.     [Sub- 

ject verb  —  object  —  place  —  time  —  explanation.] 

Right:     In  the  morning  I  found  on  my  bed  a  heap 

of    snow  which    had    drifted    in    through    the    window. 

[Time  —  subject  verb  —  place  —  object  —  explanatior .] 

Bring  related  modifiers  together :  When  he  has  prepared  his 
lessons,  he"  will  come,  as  soon  as  he  can  put  on  his  old  clothes. 
[Condition  —  main  clause  —  condition.] 

Right:  When  he  fcas  i)reparcd  his  lessons  and  put  on  his  old 
clothes,  he  v;ill  come.  [Condition  and  condition  —  main 
clause.] 

Exercise : 

1.  He  was  gazing  at  the  landscape  which  he  had  painted  with 

a  smiling  face. 

2.  She  turned  the  steak  with  a  fork  which  she  was  cooking  for 

dmner  every  few  minutes. 

3.  Dickens  puts  the  various  experiences  he  had  in  the  form  of  a 

novel  when  he  was  a  boy. 

4.  H  the  roads  are  made  of  dirt,  the  farmer  has  to  wait,  if  the 

weather  is  rainy,  till  they  dry. 

5.  We  received  practically  very  little  or  none  at  all  experience 

in  writing  themes. 

Logical  Sequence 

25.   Place  first  in  the  sentence  the  idea  which  naturally 
comes  first  in  thought  or  in  the  order  of  time. 

Faulty:     We  went  to  the  station  from  the  house  after  bidding 

all  goodby. 
Right :     We  said  goodby  to  all,  and  went  from  the  house  to  the 

station. 

Do  not  begin  one  idea,  abandon  it  for  a  second,  and 
then  return  to  the  first.     Complete  one  idea  at  a 

time. 

41 


26 

CLEARNESS  BY  COHERENCE 

Faulty:  She  looked  up  as  he  approached  and  smoothed  her 
hair.  [The  writer  begins  a  main  clause,  changes  to  a  subordi- 
nate clause,  and  then  attempts  to  add  more  to  the  main  clause. 
Unfortunately   the   last  two   verbs   appear  to  be   coordinate.] 

Right :  She  looked  up  and  smoothed  her  hair  as  he  approached. 
[Or]  As  he  approached  she  looked  up,  and  smoothed  her  hair. 

Ordinarily,  let  a  second  thought  begin  where  the  first 
leaves  off. 

Faulty:  An  orange  grove  requires  plenty  of  water.  The  young 
trees  will  die  if  they  do  not  have  plenty  of  water.  [The  order 
of  ideas  is :  "  Grove  .  .  .  water.  Trees  .  .  .  water."  Re- 
verse the  order  of  the  second  sentence.] 

Right:  An  orange  grove  requires  plenty  of  water.  For  without 
water  the  young  trees  will  die.  [Now  the  order  of  ideas  is: 
"  Grove  .  .  .  water.    Water  .  .  .  trees."] 

Exercise: 

1.  I  boarded  the  train,  after  buying  a  ticket. 

2.  I  dropped  my  pen  when  the  whistle  blew  and  sighed. 

3.  Unless  the  bank  clerk  has  ability  he  will  never  be  successful 

unless  he  works  faithfully  and  hard. 

4.  I  remember  the  days  when   Rover  was   a  pup.     Now  he  is 

not  half  so  interesting  as  he  was  then. 

5.  A  chessboard  is  divided  into  sixty-four  squares,  and  there  is 

plenty  of  room  between  the  opposing  armies  for  a  terrific 
battle,  since  each  army  occupies  only  sixteen  squares. 

Squinting  Modifier 

26.  Avoid  the  squinting  construction.  That  is,  do  not  place 
between  two  parts  of  a  sentence  a  modifier  that  may 
attach  itself  to  either.  Place  the  modifier  where  it 
cannot  be  misunderstood. 

Confusing:  I  told  him  when  the  time  came  I  would  do  it. 
[When  the  time  came  is  said  to  "squint"  because  the  reader 


CLEARNESS  BY  COHERENCE 

cannot  tell  whether  it  looks  forward  to  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence, or  backward  to  the  beginning.] 
Right:     When  the  time  came,  I  told  him  I  would  do  it.     [Or] 

I  told  him  I  would  do  it  when  the  time  came. 
Confusing:     Some   friends   1   knew   would  enjoy  the   play.     [/ 

knew  squints.] 
Right:     Some  friends  would  enjoy  the  play,  I  knew. 
Confusing:     The  orator  whom  every  one  was  calling  for  en- 

thusiasticafly     hurried     to     the     platform.     [Enthusiastically 

squints] 
Clear:     The  orator^ whom  every  one  was  enthusiastically  calling 

lor  hurried  to  the  platform. 

Exercise : 

1.  The  man  who  laughs  half  the  time  does  not  understand  the 

joke. 

2.  Playing  football  in  many  ways  improves  the  mind. 

3.  When  she  reached  home  much  to  her  disgust  the  door  was 

locked. 

4.  When  the  lightning  struck   for  the  first  time   in   my  Hfe   I 

was  afraid. 

5.  The  landlord  wrote  that  he  would  if  the  rent  were  not  paid 

in  thirty  days  eject  the  tenant. 

Misplaced  Word 

Such  an  adverb  as  only,  ever,  almost,  should  be  placed 
near  the  word  it  modifies,  and  separated  from  words 
which  it  might  falsely  seem  to  modify.  Such  a  con- 
junction as  nevertheless,  if  required  with  a  clause, 
should  usually  be  placed  near  the  beginning. 

Illogical :     I  only  need  a  few  dollars. 
Right:     I  need  only  a  few  dollars. 
Illogical :     1  don't  ever  intend  to  go  there  again. 
Right:     I  don't  intend  ever  to  go  there  again.     [Or]    I  intend 
never  to  go  there  again. 

43 


28 

CLEARNESS  BY  COHERENCE 

Illogical:     She  has  the  sweetest  voice  I  nearly  ever  heard. 

Right:  She  has  nearly  [or  almost\  the  sweetest  voice  1  ever 
heard. 

Tardy  use  of  conjunction:  1  intend  to  try.  I  do  not  e.xpect  to 
accomplish   much,   however. 

Right:  I  intend  to  try.  I  d©  not,  however,  expect  to  accom- 
plish much. 

Exercise : 

1.  Students  are  only  admitted  to  one  lecture. 

2.  This  is  the  smallest  book  1  almost  ever  saw. 

3.  He  is  so  poor  he  hasn't  any  food,  scarcely. 

4.  She  had  one  dress  that  she  never  expected  to  wear. 

5.  The  difficulties  were  tremendous.     He  said  that  he  would  do 

his  best,  nevertheless. 

Split  Construction 

28.  Elements  that  have  a  close  grammatical  connection 
should  not  be  separated  awkwardly  or  carelessly. 
These  elements  are :  (a)  subject  and  verb,  or  verb  and 
object ;  (b)  the  parts  of  a  compound  verb ;  and  (c)  the 
parts  of  an  infinitive. 

Awkward :  One  in  the  struggle  for  efficiency  should  not  be- 
come a  machine. 

Better :  In  the  struggle  for  efficiency  one  should  not  become 
a  machine. 

Awkward :  What  use  of  an  education  could  a  girl  who  married 
a  penniless  rogue  and  afterwards  knew  nothing  but  hard  labor, 
make? 

Be1;ter :  What  use  of  an  education  could  a  girl  make  who  mar- 
ried a  penniless  rogue  and  afterward  knew  nothing  but  hard 
labor? 

Crude :     He  was  unable  to  even  so  much  as  stir  a  foot. 

Better:     He  was  unable  even  to  stir  a  foot. 


44 


CLEARNESS  BY  COHERENCE 

Note. —  It  is  often  desirable  to  separate  the  forms  enumer- 
ated under  (a)  and  (b)  above,  either  for  emphasis  (See 
40)  or  to  avoid  a  bunching  of  modiiiers  at  the  end  of  a 
sentence  (See  24).  The  whole  point  of  rule  28  is  not 
to  depart  from  a  natural  order  needlessly. 

Exercise: 

1.  One  thing  the  beginner  must  remember  is  to  not  get  excited. 

2.  Ralph,  when  he  heard  the  news,  came  flying  out  of  the  house. 

3.  The  president  called  together,   for  the  need  was  urgent,  his 

cabinet. 

4.  Bryce  said  that  it  is  more  patriotic  to  judiciously  vote  than 

to  frantically  wave  the  American  flag. 

5.  About  the  time  Florence  Nightingale  had  to  give  up  her  plans, 

a  war  between  Turkey,  England,  and  France  on  one  side 
and  Russia  on  the  other,  broke  out. 


29.     EXERCISE  IN  CLEARNESS  OF  THOUGHT 
A.     Reference  of  Pronouns 

In  the  following  sentences  make  the  reference  of  pro- 
nouns exact  and  unmistakable. 

1.  Brown  wrote  to  Roberts  that  he  had  made  a  mistake. 

2.  We  heard  a  voice  through  the  door  which  told  us  to  enter. 

3.  There  is  a  walk  leading  from  the  street  to  the  house  which 

is  made  of  thin  slabs  of  stone. 

4.  A  milking  stool  was  beside  the  cow  on  which  he  was  accus- 

tomed to  sit. 

5.  Should  a  community,  such  as  a  small  village,  spend  the  money 

they  do  on  roads? 

6.  This  magazine  prints  many  special  articles  on  politics  and  social 

reforms  that  are  always  instructive. 

7.  I  wish  I  could  do  something  for  the  protection  of  birds  in  our 

country  which  is  neglected. 

45 


29 


CLEARNESS  01'  THOUGHT 

8.  After  a  man  has  failed  in  one  business,  it  is  no  sign  he  will 

fail  in  every  other. 

9.  Sometimes  cane  syrup  is  mixed  with  the  maple  syrup,  which 

reduces  the  value  of  the  product. 

10.  It  means  hard  and  diligent  work  to  study  Latin,  but  it  strength- 

ens our  brain  or  at  least  it  gives  it  good  exercise. 

11.  In  the  class  room  the  students  become  acquainted,  which  may 

develop   into  lifelong  friendships. 

12.  He  was  delighted  with  a  ride  on  horseback,  which  animal  he 

had  been  familiar  with  in  his  childhood  on  the  farm. 

13.  It   says  in  our   history  that  the   battle   of   New   Orleans  was 

fought  after  the  treaty  of  peace  had  been  signed. 

14.  Sparks  tlew  about  in  the  air,  and  it  reminded  me  of  a  huge 

Fourth  of  July  celebration. 

15.  The  doctor  gave  me  medicine  to  stop  the  dull  pain  in  my  head. 

This  made  me  feel  much  better. 

B.     Dangling  Modifiers 

Remembering  that  a  participle  is  used  as  an  adjec- 
tive and  must  therefore  refer  to  a  noun  or  pronoun, 
correct  the  following  sentences.  Gerund  phrases  and 
a  few  elHptical  sentences  are  inckided  in  the  list. 

1.  Having  planned  the  basement,  the  next  thing  considered  was 

the  first  floor. 

2.  Glancing  around  the  room,  the  ugly  wall  paper  at  once  con- 

fronted me. 

3.  After  ringing  the  bell,  and  waiting  a   few  moments,  a  maid 

came  to  the  door. 

4.  When  selecting  a  site  for  an  orchard,  it  should  be  well  drained. 

5.  Not  being  a  skilled  dancer,  my  feet  moved  awkwardly. 

6.  Having  no  watch,  the  clock  must  be  consulted. 

7.  He  was  sick,  caused  by  eating  too  much  dessert. 

8.  Radium  is  very  difficult  to  get,  making  it  the  most  valuable 

metal. 
0.  One  man  goes  home  and  beats  his  wife,  resulting  in  internal 
injuries. 

46 


CLEARNESS  OF  THOUGHT 

10.  Over  the  paper  and  kindling  a  few  small  chunks  of  coal  are 

scattered,  taking  care  not  to  choke  the  draft. 

11.  In  speaking  of  character,  it  does  not  mean  to  be  a  governor 

or  a  general. 

12.  This   town   draws   trade    for   a   radius    of    twenty   miles,    thus 

accounting  ior  the  large  volume  of  business. 

13.  'While  talking  to  Ralph  yesterday,  he  spoke  about  his  recent 

success  in  the  hardware  business. 

14.  The  bus  holds  fifteen  people,  and  when  full,  the  bus  man  shuts 

the  door. 

15.  If  bright  and  pleasant,  the  rabbit  will  be  found  sitting  at  the 

entrance  of  his  burrow. 

C.     Coherence 

Secure  a  clear,  smooth,  natttral  order  for  the  follow- 
ing sentences. 

1.  1  have  a  lot  for  sale  near  the  city  limits. 

2.  Many  men  can  only  speak  their  native  tongue. 

3.  I   saw  yesterday,  crossing  the  street,  a  beautiful  woman. 

4.  They  entered  the  room,  and   sitting  on  the   floor  they   saw   a 

baby. 

5.  I  put  down  my  book  when  the  clock  struck  and  yawned. 

6.  She  dropped  the  money  on  the  sidewalk  which  she  was  carry- 

ing home. 

7.  The  horse  did  not  notice  that  the  gate  was  open  for  several 

minutes. 

8.  It  was  worth  the  trouble.     I  do  not  wish  to  have  the  e.xperience 

again,  however. 

9.  My  first  trip  away  from  home,  of  any  distance,  was  made  on 

a  steamboat  from  St.  Louis  to  New  Orleans. 
0.  He  gazed  at  a  young  man  who  was  waving  his  hands  vio- 
lently, called  a  cheer  leader. 

11.  Any  soil  will  grow  some  variety  of  strawberry,  except  sand 

and  clay. 

12.  I   turned   triumphantly  to  Will,  who  was   still  gazing  at   the 

place  where  the  muskrat  sank  with  a  beaming  face. 
47 


29 

CLEARNESS  OF  THOUGHT 

13.  Only  the  interest,  the  principal  being  kept  intact,  is  spent. 

14.  A   student   should   see   that   external   conditions   are   favorable 

for  study,  such  as  light,  temperature,  and  clothing. 

15.  Draw  a  heavy  line  using  a  ruler  to  connect  New  York  and  San 

Francisco  across  the  map. 


48 


PARALLEL  STRUCTURE 

When  the  structure  of  a  sentence  is  simple  and  uni- 
form, the  important  words  strike  the  eye  at  once. 
Compare  the  following: 

Parallel :     Beggars  must  not  be  choosers. 

Confusing:     Beggars  must  not  be  the  ones  who  choose. 

A  reader  giv^s  attention  partly  to  the  structure  of  a 
sentence,  and  partly  to  the  thought.  The  less  we  puzzle 
him  with  our  structure,  the  more  we  shall  impress  him 
with  our  thought. 

Parallel:     Seeing  is  believing.     [Attention  goes  to  the  thought.] 
Confusing:     Seeing    is    to    believe.     [Attention    is    diverted    to 
structure.] 

The  reader's  expectation  is  that  uniform  structure 
shall  accompany  uniform  ideas,  and  that  a  departure 
from  uniformity  shall  indicate  a  change  of  thought. 

Parallel  Structure  for  Parallel  Thoughts 

Give  parallel  structure  to  those  parts  of  a  sentence 
which  are  parallel  in  thought.  Do  not  needlessly  in- 
terchange an  infinitive  with  a  participle,  a  phrase  with 
a  clause,  a  single  word  with  a  phrase  or  clause,  a  main 
clause  with  a  dependent  clause,  one  voice  or  mode  of 
the  verb  with  another,  etc. 

Faulty:     Riding  is  sometimes  better  exercise  than  to  walk. 
Right;     Riding  is  sometimes  better  exercise  than  walking.     [Or] 

To  ride  is  sometimes  better  exercise  than  to  walk. 
Faulty:     He  had  two  desires,  of  which  the  first  was  for  money; 

in  the  second  place,  he  wanted  fame. 

49 


CLEARNESS  BY  PARALLEL  STRUCTURE 

Right:  He  had  two  desires,  of  which  the  tirst  was  for  money 
and  the  second  for  fame.  [Or]  He  had  two  desires;  in  the 
first  place,  he  wanted  money  ;  in  the  second,  fame. 

Faulty:  His  rival  handled  cigars  of  better  quality  and  having 
a  higher  selling  price. 

Right:  His  rival  handled  cigars  of  better  quality  and  higher 
price. 

Faulty:  When  you  have  mastered  the  operation  of  shifting 
gears,  and  after  a  little  practice  you  will  be  a  good  driver. 

Right :  When  you  have  mastered  the  operation  of  shifting 
gears,  and  had  a  little  practice,  you  will  be  a  good  driver. 
[Or]  After  you  master  the  gears  and  have  a  little  practice,  you 
will  be  a  good  driver. 

Faulty :  These  are  the  duties  of  the  president  of  a  literary  so- 
ciety : 

(a)  To  preside  at  regular  meetings, 

(b)  He  calls  special  meetings, 

(c)  Appointment  of  committees. 

Right:  These  are  the  duties  of  the  president  of  a  literary  so- 
ciety : 

(a)  To  preside  at  regular  meetings, 

(b)  To  call  special  meetings, 

(c)  To  appoint  committees. 

Faulty :  She  was  actively  connected  with  the  club,  church, 
and  with  several  organized  charities.  [Here  parallelism  is 
obscured  by  the  omission  from  the  second  phrase  of  both  the 
preposition  and  the  article.] 

Right :  She  was  actively  connected  with  the  club,  with  the 
church,  and  with  several  organized  charities. 

Faulty:  He  was  red-faced,  awkward,  and  had  a  disposition  to 
eat  everything  on  the  table.  [The  third  element  is  like  the 
others  in  thought,  and  should  have  similar  form.] 

Right:  He  had  a  red  face,  an  awkward  manner,  and  a  dispo- 
sition to  eat  everything  on  the  table.  [Or]  He  was  red-faced, 
awkward,  and  voracious. 


so 


CLEARNESS  BY  PARALLEL  STRUCTURE 

Note. —  Avoid  misleading  parallelism.     For  ideas  different 
in  kind,  do  not  use  parallel  structure. 

Wrong:     He  was  hot,  puffing,  and  evidently  had  run  very  hard. 

[The  third  element  is  unlike  the  others  in  thought;  hence  the 

a)id  is  misleading.] 
Right:     He   was   hot  and    puffing;    evidently   he   had   run  very 

hard. 
Confusing:'  He  was  admired  for  his  knowledge  of  science,  and 

for  his  taste  for  art,  and  for  this  I  too  honor  him.     [The  last 

for  gives  a  fal^  parallelism  to  unlike  thoughts.] 
Better:     He  was  admired   for  his  scientific  knowledge  and  for 

his-  artistic  taste.     I  honor  him  for  both  these  qualities. 

Exercise : 

1.  The  duties  of   the   secretary  are   to  answer  correspondence, 

and  keeping  the  minutes  of  the  meetings. 

2.  This  process  is  the  most  difficult;  it  costs  the  most;  and  is 

most  important. 

3.  I  make  it  a  rule  to  be  orderly,  spend  no  money  foolishly,  and 

keep  still  when  1  have  nothing  to  say. 

4.  The  cotton  is  put  up  in  bales  about  five  feet  in  length  and 

three  feet  wide  and  four  thick,  and  one  of  them  weighing 
about  five  hundred  pounds. 

5.  Considerations    of    economy    that   one    should   bear    in   mind 

when  planning  a  house  are;  first,  a  rectangular  ground- 
plan  ;  second,  a  one-chimney  plan  ;  third,  to  have  only  one 
stairway;  fovirth,  eliminate  as  many  doors  as  possible; 
fifth,  the  bathroom  should  be  above  the  kitchen  so  as  to 
reduce  the  cost  of  plumbing;  and  lastly,  the  rooms  should 
be  few  and  large  rather  than  small  and  many  of  them. 

Correlatives 

Conjunctions  that  are  used  in  pairs  are  called  correla- 
tives; for  example,  not  only  .  .  .  but  also  .  .  ,  both 
.  .  .  atid  .  .  ,  either  .  .  or  .  .  ,  neither  .  .  .  nor  .  .  , 
not  ,  ,  .  or  ,  .  ,  whether  .  .  .  or  .  .  . 

51 


CLEARNESS  BY  PARALLEL  STRUCTURE 

31.  Correlatives  should  usually  be  followed  by  elements 
parallel  in  form ;  if  a  predicate  follows  one,  a  predicate 
should  follow  the  other;  if  a  prepositional  phrase  fol- 
lows one,  a  prepositional  phrase  should  follow  the 
other;  and  so  on. 

Faulty :  He  was  not  only  courteous  to  rich  customers  but  also 
to  poor  ones.  [Here  the  phrases  intended  to  be  balanced 
against  each  other  are  to  rich  custoDicrs  and  to  poor  ones. 
As  the  sentence  stands,  it  is  the  word  courteous  that  is  bal- 
anced against  to  poor  ones] 

Right:  He  was  courteous  not  only  to  rich  customers  but  also 
to  poor  ones. 

Faulty :  She  could  neither  make  up  her  mind  to  go  nor  could 
she  decide  to  stay. 

Right:  She  could  neither  make  up  her  mind  to  go  nor  decide 
to  stay.  [Or]  She  could  not  make  up  her  mind  either  to  go 
or  to  stay. 

Faulty:  I  talked  both  with  Brown  and  Miller.  [Here  one 
conjunction  is  followed  by  a  preposition  and  the  other  by  a 
noun.] 

Right:  I  talked  with  both  Brown  and  Miller.  [Or]  I  talked 
both  with  Brown  and  with  Miller. 

Exercise : 

1.  He  was  courteous  to  both  friends  and  his  enemies. 

2.  Such  conduct  is  not  only  dangerous  to  society  but  becomes  a 

national  disgrace  as  well. 

3.  She  had  neither  affectation  of  manners  nor  was  she  sharp- 

tongued. 

4.  After   reading  Thoreau's   IP'alden   I   appreciate  not  only  the 

style  but  also  I  am  inclined  to  believe  in  his  ideas. 

5.  The  good  that  the  delegates  derive  from  the  convention  not 

only  helps  them,  but  they  tell  others  what  happened. 


S2 


CLEARNESS  BY  CONSISTENCY 

CONSISTENCY 

Shift  in  Subject  or  Voice 

Do  not  needlessly  shift  the  subject,  voice,  or  mode  in 
the  middle  of  a  sentence.  Keep  one  point  of  view,  un- 
til there  is  a  reason  for  changing. 

Faulty;  lirthe  stream  which  the  road  led  over,  fish  were  plen- 
tiful. [Here  the  first  mental  picture  is  of  a  stream.  Then 
the  thought  is  >erked  away  to  the  road  above.  Then  it  re- 
turns to  the  fish  in  the  stream.] 

Right;  In  the  stream  which  flowed  under  the  roadway,  fish 
were  plentiful. 

Faulty :  Mark  Twain  was  born  in  the  West,  but  the  East  was 
his  home  in  later  years.  [The  change  of  subject  is  uncalled 
for.] 

Right;  Mark  Twain  was  born  in  the  West,  but  lived  in  the 
East  in  his  later  years.  [Or]  The  West  was  the  birthplace  of 
Mark  Twain,  and  the  East  was  his  home  m  his  later  years. 

Faulty:  A  careful  driver  can  go  fifteen  miles  on  a  gallon  of 
gasoline,  and  at  the  same  time  very  little  lubricating  oil  is 
used.  [The  shift  from  active  to  passive  voice  is  awkward 
and  confusing.] 

Right:  A  careful  driver  can  go  fifteen  miles  on  a  gallon  of 
gasoline,  and  at  the  same  time  use  very  little  lubricating  oil. 

Faulty:  When  a  problem  in  chemistry  is  given,  or  when  we 
wish  to  calculate  certain  formulas,  we  find  that  a  knowledge 
of  mathematics  is  indispensable. 

Right:  When  a  problem  in  chemistry  is  given,  or  when  certain 
formulas  are  to  be  calculated,  a  knowledge  of  mathematics  is 
indispensable.  [Or]  When  we  face  a  problem  in  chemistry, 
or  wish  to  calculate  certain  formulas,  we  find  that  a  knowledge 
of   mathematics   is   indispensable. 

Faulty :  Next  the  ground  should  i)e  harrowed.  Then  you  sow 
the  wheat.  [The  subject  changes  from  ground  to  you.  One 
verb  explains  what  should  be  done,  the  other  what  somebody 
does.] 

53 


CLEARNESS  BY  CONSISTENCY 

Right :     Next    the    ground      j  \      ,  ,  ,     I    harrowed.     Then  it 

I  should  be j 

i    ,      J ,  .      \-   sown  to  wheat.     [Or]  Next  you  should  harrow 
the  ground.     Then  you  should  sow  the  wheat. 

Exercise : 

1.  One  end  of  a  camera  carries  the  film,  and  the  lens  and  shut- 

ter are  in  the  other  end. 

2.  When  an  athlete  is  in  training,  good  healthful   food  should 

be  eaten. 

3.  An  engineer's  time  is  not  devoted  to  one  branch  of  science, 

but  should  include  many. 

4.  By  having  only  five  men  in  charge  of  our  city  government, 

they  would  have  more  power,  and  we  could  then  fix   re- 
sponsibility. 

5.  There  are  two  main  classes  of  cake,  sponge  and  butter.     We 

are  taught  to  make  both  in  cooking  school.     I  like  the  sponge 
cake.    The  butter  cake  is  preferred  by  most  persons. 

Shift  in  Number,  Person,  or  Tense 

33.    Avoid  an  inconsistent  change  in  number,  person,  or 
tense. 

Faulty  change  in  number :     One  should  save  their  money. 

Right:  People  should  save  their  money.  [Or]  A  man  should 
save  his  money. 

Faulty  change  in  person :  Place  the  seeds  in  water,  and  in  a 
few  days  a  person  can  see  that  they  have  started  to  grow. 

Right :  Place  the  seeds  in  water,  and  in  a  few  days  you  will 
see  that  they  have  started  to  grow. 

Faulty  change  in  number:  Take  your  umbrella  with  you.  They 
will  be  needed  today. 

Right :     Take  your  umbrella  with  you.     You  will  need  it  today. 

Faulty  change  in  tense :  Freedom  means  that  a  man  may  con- 
duct his  affairs  as  he  pleases  so  long  as  he  did  not  injure  any- 
body else. 

54 


CLEARNESS  BY  CONSISTENCY 

Right:  Freedom  means  that  a  man  may  conduct  his  affairs 
as  he  pleases  so  long  as  he  does  not  injure  anybody  else. 

Faulty  change  in  tense:  When  he  heard  the  news,  he  hurries 
down  town  and  buys  a  paper. 

Right:  When  he  heard  the  news,  he  hurried  down  town  and 
bought  a  paper. 

Note. —  A  change  of  tense  within  a  sentence  is  desirable 
and  necessary  in  certain  instances,  for  which  see  55. 

Sometimes,  fof  the  sake  of  vividness,  past  events  are 
described  in  the  present  tense,  as  if  they  were  taking 
place  before  our  eyes.  This  usage  is  called  the  his- 
torical present.  A  shift  to  the  historical  present  should 
not  be  made  abruptly,  or  frequently,  or  for  any  sub- 
ject except  an  important  crisis. 

Exercise : 

1.  A  person  should  be  careful  of  their  conduct. 

2.  Sentences   should  be   so   formed  that  the   reader   feels  it  to 

be  a  unit. 

3.  One  should  make  the  best  of  their  surroundings   and  their 

possessions,  provided  they  cannot  better  them. 

4.  When  he  sees  me  coming,  he  looked  the  other  way. 

5.  Silas  Marner  lost  many  of  his  habits  of  solitude,  and  goes 

out  among  his  neighbors. 

Mixed  Constructions 
Do  not  make  a  compromise  between  two  constructions. 

Faulty:     I  cannot  help  but  go. 

Right:     I  cannot  help  going.     [Or]    I   cannot  but  go.     [Or]    I 

can  but  go. 
Faulty  :     They  are  as  following : 

Right:     They  are  as  follows:     [Or]  They  are  the  following: 
Faulty:     He  tried,  but  of  no  avail. 

55 


CLEARNESS  BY  CONSISTENCY 

Right:     He  tried,  but  to  no  avail.     LOr]  He  tried,  but  his  effort 

was  of  no  avail. 
Faulty :     There  is  no  honor  to  be  on  this  committee. 
Right:     It  is  no  honor  to  be  on  this  committee.     [Or]  There  is 

no  honor  m  bemg  on  this  committee. 
Faulty :     Sparks  from  the  chimney  caught  the  house  on  fire. 
Right:     Sparks  from  the  chimney  set  the  house  on  fire.     [Or] 

The  house  caught  fire  from  the  sparks  from  the  chimney. 

|y[ote. —  The  double  negative  and  kindred  expressions 
(not  hardly,  not  scarcely,  etc.)  are  an  especially  gross 
form  of  mixed  construction. 

Wrong:     He  isn't  no  better  now  than  he  was  then.     [Logically, 

not  no  better  means  better.    The  two  negatives  cancel  each 

other  and  leave  an  affirmative.] 
Right:     He  isn't  any  better  now  than  he  was  then.     [Or]   He 

is  no  better  now  than  he  was  then. 
AVrong:     She  couldn't  see  her  friend  nowhere. 
Right:     She  couldn't  see  her  friend  anywhere.     [Or]   She  could 

see  her  friend  nowhere. 
Wrong:     We  couldn't  hardly  see  through  the  mist. 
Right:     We    could    hardly    see    through    the    mist.     [Or]    We 

couldn't  see  well  through  the  mist. 

Exercise : 

1.  He  doesn't  come  here  no  more. 

2.  I  cannot  help  but  make  this  error. 

3.  I  remember  scarcely  nothing  of  the  occurrence. 

4.  I  would  not  remain  there  only  a  few  days. 

5.  John  would  not  do  this  under  no  circumstances. 

IVIixed  Imagery 

35.  Avoid  phrases  which  may  call  up  conflicting  mental 
images.  When  using  metaphor,  simile,  etc.,  carry  one 
figure  of  speech  through,  instead  of  shifting  to  an- 
other, or  dropping  suddenly  back  into  literal  speech. 

56 


CLEARNESS  BY  CONSISTENCY 

Crude:  The  Republicans  have  gained  a  foothold  in  the  heart  of 
the  cotton  belt. 

Right :     The  Republicans  ha\  e  gained  a  foothold  in  the  South. 

Crude :  He  traveled  a  rough  road  and  climbed  with  his  burden 
the  ladder  of  success,  where  he  is  a  glowing  example  and  guide 
to  other  men.  [The  suggestion  which  a  reader  with  a  sense  of 
humor  may  get  is.  that  a  man  starts  out  as  a  traveler,  suddenly 
becomes  a  "hod-carrier,  and  is  then  transformed  into  a  bonfire 
or  a  lighthouse.] 

Right :  He  traveled  a  rough  road,  but  found  success.  Other 
men  followed  in  his  steps. 

Incongruous :  Spring  came  scattering  flowers,  and  there  was 
rain  a  great  per  cent  of  the  time.  [This  sentence  mingles  the 
language  of  poetry  with  the  language  of  science.  It  should 
be  fanciful,  or  else  literal,  throughout.] 

Right:  Spring  came  scattering  flowers  and  rain.  [Or]  Spring 
came  with  much  rain  and  many  flowers. 

Inconsistent  use  of  irony :  The  phonograph  was  shrieking, 
"  Waltz  me  around  again,  Willie."  I  am  sure  I  love  that  beau- 
tiful song.  The  taste  of  the  people  who  attend  these  cheap 
theaters  is  deplorable.  [The  three  sentences  should  be  ironical 
throughout,  or  not  ironical  at  all.] 

Exercise : 

1.  We  should  meet  the  future  from  the  optimistic  point  of  view. 

2.  General  Wolfe  put  every  ounce  of  his  life  into  the  capture  of 

Quebec. 

3.  A  key-note  of  sincerity  should  be  the  mainspring  of  a  well- 

built  speeech. 

4.  He  went  drifting  down  the  sands  of  time  on   flowery  beds 

of  ease. 

5.  The  blank  in  my  mind  crystallized  into  action. 


57 


CLEARNESS  BY  CONNECTIVES 

USE  OF  CONNECTIVES 

The  Exact  Connective 

Use  a  connective  which  expresses  the  exact  relation  be- 
tween two  clauses.  Distinguish  between  time  and 
cause,  concession  and  condition,  etc.  Do  not  over- 
work and,  so,  or  while. 

Misleading:     While  he  is  sick,  he  is  able  to  walk.     [Use  though.'] 
Misleading:     Miss  Brown  sang,  ivhile  her  sister  spoke  a  piece. 

[Use  but.] 
Faulty:     Work  hard  when  you  want  to  succeed.     [Use  if.] 
Faulty:     They  will  be  sorry  without  they  do  this.     [Use  unless.] 
Faulty :     Little  poetry  is  read,  only  at  times  when  it  is  compul- 
sory.    [Use  except.] 
Faulty:     The  early  morning  and  evening  are  the  best  times  to 
find  ducks,  and  we  did  not  see  many  flying.     [Use  and  for 
that  reason.] 
Faulty :     Corbin  says  :     "  In  America  sportsmanship  is  almost  a 
passion,"  and  in  England  "  the  player  very  seldom  forgets  that 
he  is  a  man  first  and  an  athlete  afterward."     [Use  whereas.] 

Note. —  So  is  an  elastic  word  that  covers  a  multitude  of 
vague  meanings.  Language  has  need  of  such  a  word, 
and  in  many  instances  (especially  when  the  relation  be- 
tween clauses  is  obvious  and  does  not  need  to  be 
pointed  out)  so  serves  well  enough.  Use  it,  but  not  as 
a  substitute  for  more  exact  connectives.  Beware  of 
falling  into  the  "'  .yo-habit  ". 

Abuse  of  so  as  a  vague  coordinating  connective :  So  I  went  to 
call  on  Mrs.  Woods,  and  so  she  told  me  about  Mrs.  White's 
new  gown ;  so  then  I  missed  the  car,  and  so  of  course  our  sup- 
per is  late.     [Strike  out  every  so.] 

Abuse  of  so  as  a  subordinating  connective:     You  may  go,  so 

58 


CLEARNESS  BY  CONNECTIVES 

you  keep  still.     [Use  provided.]     So  you  do  only  that,  I  shall 
be  satisfied.     [Use  though.] 
Right :     1  was  excited,  so  1  missed  the  target. 

The  most  correct  use  of  so  is  to  express  result.  But 
when  a  clause  of  result  is  important  and  needs  empha- 
sis, it  is  perhaps  better  to  strike  out  so  and  subordinate 
the  preceding  clause. 

Right:     In  my  excitement  I  missed  the  target. 
Right :     Because  f  was  excited,  I  missed  the  target. 
Right :     Being  excited,  I  missed  the  target. 

List  of  Connectives 
A.  With  Coordinate  Clauses,  expressing 

1.  Addition:     and,    besides,     furthermore,    again,    in    addition, 

in   like   manner,   likewise,   moreover,   then   too,   and   finally. 

2.  Contrast:     but,  and  yet,  however,  in  spite  of,  in  contrast  to 

this,  nevertheless,  notwithstanding,  nor,  on  the  contrary, 
for  all  that,  rather,  still,  but  unhappily,  yet  unfortunately, 
whereas. 

3.  Alternative:     or,  nor,  else,  otherwise,  neither,  nor,  or  on  the 

other  hand. 

4.  Consequence:     therefore,    hence,    consequently,    accordingly, 

in  this  way,  it  follows  that,  the  consequence  is,  and  under 
such  circumstances,  wherefore,  thus,  as  a  result,  as  a  con- 
sequence. 

5.  Explanation:     for  example,  for  instance,  in  particular,  more 

specifically,  for,  because. 

6.  Repetition  for  emphasis :  in  other  words,  that  is  to  say,  and 

assuredly,  certainly,  in  fact,  and  in  truth,  indeed  it  is  cer- 
tain, undoubtedly,  for  example,  in  the  same  way,  as  I  have 
said. 


59 


36 


CLEARNESS  BY  CONNECTIVES 

B.  With  Subordinate  Adverb  Clauses,  expressing 

1.  Time:     when,  then,  before,  while,  after,  until  at  last,  as  long 

as,    now    that,    upon    which,    until,    whenever,    whereupon, 
meanwhile. 

2.  Place:     where,  whence,  whither,  wherever. 

3.  Degree  or  Comparison:     as,  more  than,   rather  than,  than, 

to  the  degree  in  which. 

4.  Manner:    as,  as  if,  as  though. 

5.  Cause:     because,   for,   as,   inasmuch   as,   since,  owing  to   the 

fact  that,  seeing  that,  in  that. 

6.  Purpose:     that,  so  that,  in  order  that,  lest. 

7.  Result:     that  is,  so  that,  but  that. 

8.  Condition:     if,  provided  that,  in  case  that,  on  condition  that, 

supposing  that,  unless. 

9.  Concession:     though,  although,  assuming  that,  admitting  that, 

granting  that,  even  if,  no  matter  how,  notwithstanding,  of 
course. 

C.  With  Adjective  Clauses.  Adjective  or  relative 
clauses  are  introduced  by  who,  which,  that,  or  an 
equivalent  compound. 

Exercise: 

Insert  within  the  parentheses  all  the  connectives  that  might 
conceivably  be  used,  placing  first  the  one  which  you  consider 
to  be  most  exact : 

1.  He  is  not  a  broad-minded  man;   (         )   he  has  many  preju- 

dices. 

2.  A  number  of  friends  came  in,  bringing  refreshments,   (         ) 

we  spent  a  delightful  evening. 

3.  We  ought  to  return  now,  for  it  is  growing  dark ;    (         )    I 

told  Mary  we  would  be  home  at  six  o'clock. 

4.  I  do  not  believe  that  climate  is  responsible  for  many  of  the 

differences  between  races,  (         )  Taine  says  that  it  is. 

5.  She  took  the  letter  from  me  and  read  it  slowly,   (         )  her 

eyes  filled  with  tears. 

60 


37 


CLEARNESS  BY  CONNECTIVES 

Repetition  of  Connective 
with  a  Gain  in  Clearness 

37.    Connectives  that  accompany  a  parallel  series  should  be 
repeated  when  clearness  requires. 

Preposition  to  be  repeated :  He  was  regarded  as  a  hero  by  all 
who  had  known  him  at  school,  and  especially  his  old  school 
mates. 

Right :  He  was  regarded  as  a  hero  by  all  who  had  known  him 
at  school,  and  especially  by  his  old  school  mates. 

Sign  of  the  infinitive  to  be  repeated:  He  wishes  to  join  with 
those  who  love  freedom  and  justice,  and  end  needless  suffer- 
ing. 

Right:  He  wishes  to  join  with  those  who  love  freedom  and 
justice,  and  to  end  needless  suffering. 

Conjunction  to  be  repeated:  Since  he  was  known  to  have  suc- 
ceeded in  earlier  enterprises,  though  confronted  by  difficulties 
that  would  have  taxed  the  ability  of  older  men,  and  his  powers 
were  now  acknowledged  to  be  mature,  he  was  put  in  charge 
of  the  undertaking. 

Right:  Since  he  was  known  to  have  succeeded  in  earlier  en- 
terprises, though  confronted  by  difficulties  that  would  have 
taxed  the  ability  of  older  men,  and  since  his  powers  were  now 
acknowledged  to  be  mature,  he  was  put  in  charge  of  the  un- 
dertaking. 

Conjunction  to  be  repeated:  He  explained  that  the  strikers 
asked  only  a  fair  hearing,  since  their  contentions  were  mis- 
understood ;  were  by  no  means  in  favor  of  the  violent  measures 
to  which  the  public  had  grown  accustomed  ;  and  had  no  desire 
to  resort  to  bloodshed  and  the  destruction  of  property. 

Right:  He  explained  that  the  strikers  asked  only  a  fair  hearing, 
since  their  contentions  were  misunderstood;  that  they  were  by 
no  means  in  favor  of  the  violent  measures  to  which  the  public 
had  grown  accustomed ;  and  that  they  had  no  desire  to  resort 
to  bloodshed  and  the  destruction  of  property. 

6i 


38 

CLEARNESS  BY  CONNECTIVES 

Exercise : 

1.  The    place    is    often    visited    by    lishermen    who    catch    some 

strange  varieties  of  fish  and  especially  summer  tourists. 

2.  The  worth  of  a  man  depends  upon  his  character,  not  his  pos- 

sessions. 

3.  He  was  delighted  with  that  part  of  the  city  which  overlooked 

the  harbor  and  bay,  and  especially  the  citadel  on  the  high- 
est point. 

4.  Although  he  was  so  youthful  in  appearance  that  the  recruit- 

ing officer  must  have  known  he  was  under  twenty-one,  and 
had  not  yet  become  a  fully  naturalized  citizen,  his  effort 
to  enlist  met  with  immediate  success. 

5.  In  the  course  of  his  speech  he  said  that  he  was  a  foreigner, 

he  came  to  this  country  when  he  was  fourteen  years  old, 
landing  in  New  York  with  his  only  possessions  tied  in  a 
handkerchief,  went  to  work  in  an  iron  foundry,  and  after 
many  years  of  toil  he  found  himself  at  the  head  of  a  great 
industry. 

Repetition  of  Connective 
with  a  Loss  in  Clearness 

38.  Do  not  complicate  thought  by  persistent  repetition  of 
elements  beginning  with  that,  which,  of,  for,  or  but, 
and  NOT  parallel  in  structure. 

Complicated  repetition  of  that:  He  gave  a  quarter  to  the  boy 
that  brought  the  paper  that  printed  the  news  that  the  war  was 
ended.  [That,  which,  and  ivho  are  often  used  carelessly  to 
form  a  chain  of  subordinate  clauses.  Three  successive  sub- 
ordinations are  all  that  a  reader  can  possibly  keep  straight; 
ordinarily  a  writer  should  not  exceed  two.  But  in  parallel 
structure  (See  30  and  37)  the  number  of  that,  zvhich,  or  zvho 
clauses  does  not  matter;  a  writer  may  fill  a  page  with  them 
and  not  confuse  the  reader  at  all.] 

Right:  He  gave  the  boy  a  quarter  for  bringing  him  the  paper 
with  the  news  that  the  war  was  ended. 

62 


CLEARNESS  BY  CONNECTIVES 

Complicated  repetition  of  of :  The  East  Side  Civics  Club  is  an 
organization  of  helpers  of  the  helpless  of  the  lower  classes  of 
the  city. 

Right:  The  East  Side  Civics  Club  is  organized  to  help  the 
helpless  poor  of  the  city. 

Complicated  repetition  of  for:  The  general  was  dismayed,  for 
he  had  not  expected  resistance,  for  he  had  thought  the  power 
,  of  the  enemy  was  shattered. 

Right :  The  general  was  dismayed ;  he  had  not  expected  resist- 
ance, for  he  had  thought  the  power  of  the  enemy  was  shat- 
tered. 

Cornplicated  repetition  of  but:  He  was  undoubtedly  a  brave 
man,  but  now  he  was  somewhat  alarmed,  but  he  would  not 
turn  back. 

Right :  He  was  undoubtedly  a  brave  man ;  though  now  some- 
what alarmed,  he  would  not  turn  back.  [Or]  He  was  un- 
doubtedly a  brave  man.  He  was  now  somewhat  alarmed,  but 
he  would  not  turn  back. 

Note. —  Guard  against  the  hnt-hRhii.  Frequent  recur- 
rence of  but  makes  the  reader's  thought  "  tack "  or 
change  its  course  too  often.  There  are  ways  to  avoid 
an  excessive  use  of  but  and  hozvever.  When  one 
wishes  to  write  about  two  things,  A  and  B,  which  are 
opposed,  he  need  not  rush  back  and  forth  from  one 
idea  to  the  other.  Let  him  first  say  all  he  wants  to  say 
about  A.  Then  let  him  deliberately  use  the  adversative 
but,  and  proceed  to  the  discussion  of  B.  In  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph  on  "  Whipping  Children  "  the  writer 
tries  to  be  on  both  sides  of  the  fence  at  once. 

Confusing:  It  is  easier  to  punish  a  child  for  a  misdeed,  than 
to  explain  and  argue.  But  the  gentler  method  is  better.  Yet 
we  all  admit  that  the  birch  must  be  used  sometimes.  However, 
if  it  is  used  only  for  serious  transgressions,  the  child  will  have 
a  sense  of  proportion  regarding  what  offenses  are  grave.     But 

63 


39 

CLEARNESS  OF  THOUGHT 

for  ordinary  small  misdemeanors  1  think  we  need  a  new  motto : 
Spoil  the  rod  and  spare  the  child. 
Right ;  It  is  easier  to  punish  a  child  for  a  misdeed  than  to  ex- 
plain and  argue.  And  of  course  we  all  admit  that  the  birch 
must  be  used  sometimes.  But  if  it  is  used  only  for  serious 
transgressions,  the  child  will  have  a  sense  of  proportion  re- 
garding what  offenses  are  grave.  For  ordinary  small  misde- 
meanors I  think  we  need  a  new  motto ;  Spoil  the  rod  and 
spare  the  child. 

Exercise : 

1.  He  did  not  agree  at  first,  but  hesitated  for  a  time,  but  finally 

said  that  he  would  go  along. 

2.  Push   down  on  the   foot  le\er,  which  closes  a   switch   which 

starts  an  electric  motor  which  turns  the  flywheel  so  that 
the  gasoline  engine  starts. 

3.  Apple  dumplings  are  good,  but  they  must  be  properly  baked, 

but  fortunately  this  is  not  difficult  to  do. 

4.  The  work  of  the  course  consists  partly  of  the  study  of  the 

principles  of  grammar  and  of  rhetoric,  partly  of  the  writing 
of  themes,  partly  of  oral  composition,  and  partly  of  the 
reading  and  study  of  models  of  English  prose. 

5.  The  landscape  which  lay  before  me  was  one  which  was  differ- 

ent from  any  which  I  had  ever  seen  before.  There  was  one 
thing  which  impressed  me.  and  that  was  the  miles  and  miles 
of  grass  which  stretched  and  undulated  away  from  the  hill 
on  which  I  stood. 

39.     EXERCISE  IN  CLEARNESS  OF  THOUGHT 

A.     Parallel  Structure 

Give  parallel  structure  to  elements  which  are  parallel 
in  thought. 

1.  Baskets  are  of  practical  value  as  well  as  being  used  for  orna- 

ments. 

2.  The  Book  of  Job  ought  to  be  interesting  to  a  student,  or  for 

anybody. 

64 


39 


CLEARNESS  OF  THOUGHT 

3.  The  important  considerations  are  whether  the  soil  is  sandy, 

and  it  it  is  well  drained,  and  that  it  shall  be  easily  cultivated. 

4.  A   flower  garden  is   a  source  of   profit  —  profit  not  measured 

in  money  but  in  pleasure. 

5.  He  was  successful  in  business,  and  also  attained  success  in  the 

political  world. 

6.  Whether  his  object  was  writing   for  pastime,  or  to  please  a 

friend,  or  money,  we  do  not  know. 

7.  .A.lways  praise  your  enemj^  because  if  you  whip  him  your  glory 

is  increased,  and  if  he  whips  you  it  lets  you  down  easy. 

8.  Either  the  ship 'will  sink  in  the  rough  sea  or  go  to  pieces  on 

the  shore. 

9.  An  athlete  must  possess  strength,  nerve,  and  be  able  to  think 

quickly. 

10.  We   were   interested    in   buying    some    dry-goods,    and    at   the 

same  time  see  the  sights  of  the  great  city. 

11.  Some  people  talk  foolishness,  and  others  on  serious  subjects, 

and  some  keep  still. 

12.  Not  only  she  noticed  my  condition,  but  commented  on  it. 

13.  He  abides  by  neither  the  laws  of  God  nor  man.     He  spoke 

both  to  Harry  and  Tom. 

14.  It  is  good  for  the  health  of  one's  mind  to  get  new  ideas  every 

day,  and  expressing  them  clearly  in  writing. 

15.  Everyone  who  is  capable  of  understanding  the  tax  laws  should 

know  them  and  how  they  are  abused. 

16.  I  began  by  making  applications  at  federal,  state,  and  city  em- 

ployment bureaus  for  a  position  as  cost  accountant,  sales- 
man, or  clerical  work. 

17.  The  damage  to  the  trunk  was  caused  by  rough  handling  and 

not  from  faults  in  construction. 

18.  Pope,    Swift,    Addison,    and    Defoe    were    four    satirists,    but 

differing  greatly  in  their  work. 

19.  The  occupants  of  these  buildings  are  engaged  in  various  kinds 

of  business,  namely:  shoe-shining,  shoe  repair  shops,  clean- 
ing and  pressing  clothes,  confectionery  stores,  and  restau- 
rants. 

20.  I  sing  of  geese :  of  the  Biblical  goose,  that  blew  his  bugle  from 

the  roof  of  Ncah's  Ark;  the  classical  goose  that  picked  his 
65 


39 


CLEARNESS  OF  THOUGHT 

livelihood  along  the  shores  of  the  ^gean ;  of  the  historical 
goose,  that  squawked  to  save  old  Rome ;  the  niercciuiry 
goose,  laying  the  golden  egg;  and,  finally,  of  the  roast  goose. 

B.     Shift  in  Subject  or  Voice 

Rewrite    the    following    sentences,    avoiding    all    un- 
necessary shift  in  construction. 

1.  After  you  decide  on  the  plan  of  the  house,  your  attention  is 

turned  to  the  materials  of  construction. 

2.  Editors  are  careful  to  use  words   that  are   exact,   yet   simple, 

and  the  use  of  technical  terms  is  not  generally  considered 
to  be  good. 

3.  Bank  accounts  should  be  balanced  once  a  month  in  order  that 

you  may  know  your  exact  standing. 

4.  We   should   have   our   athletic   contests   between    the    weakest 

students,  and  in  that  way  they  will  become  physically  strong. 

5.  When    one    is    making    a    long-distance    run,    several    cautions 

should  be  borne  in  mind  by  him. 

6.  In  melody  the  poem  is  good,  but  the  author's  ideas  are  eccen- 

tric. 

7.  Lincoln's    sentences    are    plain,    blunt,    and    to   the    point.     He 

lacks  the  ornate  eloquence  of  Jefferson. 

8.  The  operator  places  a  large  shovelful  of  concrete  in  the  mold, 

and  the  mixture  is  made  solid  by  tamping. 

9.  He  might  become  angry,  but  it  was  over  in  a  few  minutes. 

10.  The  pauper  chanced  to  gain  entrance  to  the  royal  palace,  and 

while  there  the  young  prince  is  met  by  him. 

11.  When  the  weather  is  hot,  plowing  is  accomplished  very  slowly 

with  horses,  while  on  the  tractor  the  heat  has  no  effect. 

12.  First,  one  should  mix  one-half  cup  of  corn  syrup  and  one  cup 

of  brown  sugar;  then  one  cup  of  cream  and  the  flavoring 
are  added. 

13.  In  the  college  situated  in  a  small  town  there  are  dormitories 

for  the  student,  but  in  the  cities  they  usually  room  where 
they  please. 

14.  An  education  should  enable  us  to  tell  the  valuable  from  the 

66 


39 


CLEARNESS  OF  THOUGHT 

cheap  book,  and  by  it  we  should  be  able  to  tell  the  true  from 
the  counterfeit  man. 
15.  Moisten  the  sand  thoroughly  and  set  the  box  in  a  warm  place, 
and  in  about  a  week's  time  it  can  readily  be  seen  by  the  way 
the  grains  have  sprouted  which  ears  of  seed  corn  have 
greatest  \  itality. 

.  C.     Sbift  in  Number,  Person,  or  Tense 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences,  removing  all  incon- 
sistency  in  grammatical    form. 

1.  Every  one  has  a  right  to  their  own  opinion. 

2.  Bryant  rushed  to  the  window  and  shouts  at  the  postman. 

3.  The  life  of  the  honey  bee  has  been  studied,  and  their  activities 

found  to  be  remarkable. 
.   4.  He  says  to  me,  "Are  you  ready?"    And  I  answered,  "No." 

5.  When  a  person  keeps  a  store,  you  should  remember  the  names 

and  faces  of  your  customers. 

6.  An  automobile  is  expensive,  and  they  are  liable  to  become  an 

elephant  on  your  hands. 

7.  If  one  studies  the  market,  he  would  find  that  prices  rise  every 

year. 

8.  If  one  went  to  Europe,  he  will  find  everything  different. 

9.  Since  these  tires  were  different  in   construction,  the  method 

of  repairing  will  var3^ 

10.  Contentment  is  a  state  of  mind  in  which  one  is  satisfied  with 

themselves  and  their  surroundings. 

11.  It  is  easy  to  catch  'possums  if  you  can  find  the  rascal. 

12.  The  writer  of  a  theme  should  not  waste  time  on  a  long  intro- 

duction, but  get  to  the  facts  of  your  subject  as  quickly  as 
possible. 

13.  Shakespeare's  comedies  are  great  fun.     I  prefer  it  to  tragedy. 

14.  Often  a  man  will  knock  at  the  door,  and  finds  no  one  at  home. 

15.  Too   much  attention   will   spoil  a  child.     They  should  not  be 

entertained  every  minute. 


67 


39 


CLEARNESS  OF  THOUGHT 

D.     The  Exact  Connective 

Each  of  the  following  sentences  contains  an  idea 
which  is,  or  may  be,  subordinate  to  another  idea,  (i) 
Decide  what  kind  of  subordinate  relation  should  exist 
between  the  ideas.  (2)  Determine  what  connective 
best  expresses  this  relation.  (ConsuU  36  for  a  list  of 
connectives.)      (3)   Write  the  sentence  as  it  should  be. 

1.  Wealth  is  a  good  thing,  while  honest  wealth  is  better. 

2.  Spend  an  hour  in  the  open  air  every  day  when  you  want  to 

keep  your  heaUh. 

3.  The  rattlesnake  gives  warning  and  it  is  only  afterward  that  he 

strikes. 

4.  South  Americans  are  our  national  neighbors,  and  we  as  a  na- 

tion should  understand  them. 

5.  The  city  man  knows  nothing  about  a  cow,  only  that  it  has 

horns. 

6.  He  got  up  early  in  order  that  he  might  be  able  to  see  the 

sunrise. 

7.  The  tenderfoot  saw  the  funnel-shaped  cloud  when  he  made  for 

a  cyclone  cellar. 

8.  Men  fear  what  they  do  not  understand,  and  a  coward  is  one 

who  is  ignorant. 
g.  Hinting  did  not  influence  her;  then  he  tried  scolding. 

10.  The  valet  spilled  the  wine,  and  the  duke  started  up  with  an 

oath. 

11.  While  he  writhed  on  the  ground,  he  was  not  really  hurt. 

12.  He  will  not  cash  the  check  without  you  endorse  it. 

13.  We  want  this  work  done  by  the  first  of  April,  so  please  send 

an  estimate  soon. 

14.  He  had  traveled  everywhere,  and  he  had  a  vivid  recollection  of 

only  three  scenes:   Niagara  Falls,  the  Jungfrau,  and  Lake 
Como. 

15.  I  never  hear  him  talk  but  he  makes  me  angry. 

16.  Animals  have  some  of  the  same  feelings  as  human  beings  have. 

68 


I 


39 


CLEARNESS  OF  THOUGHT 

17.  It  was  four  o'clock  and  we  decided  to  return  and  be  home 
for  supper. 

E.     Repetition  of  Connectives 

In  the  following-  sentences  determme  whether  repe- 
tition is  desirable  or  undesirable,  and  change  the  sen- 
tences accordingly. 

1.  With  the  comin^-of  meal  time,  the  potatoes  are  removed  from 

the  fire  with  a  fork  with  a  long  handle. 

2.  His    clothes    were    brushed    and    neat,    but    patched    and    re- 

patched.     But  still  he  could  be  bright  and  cheery. 

3.  To  no  other  magazine  do  I  look  forward  to  the  arrival  of  its 

new  issue,  more  than  I  do  to  the  World's  Work. 

4.  At  the  time  the  book  was  written,  I  believe  Forster  was  con- 

sidered to  be  almost  the  best  biographer  living  at  that  time. 

5.  The  freshman  has  no  spirit  until  the  sophomores  have  pro- 

voked him  until  he  resists  until  he  finds  that  he  has  spirit. 

6.  Some   socialists   are   against   the   present   system   of   initiative, 

referendum,  and  recall,  but  advocate  a  system  much  like  it 
but  applied  in  a  different  way. 

7.  The  gun  with  which  the  Germans  bombarded  Paris  with  had  a 

range  of  seventy-five  miles. 

8.  Basketball  is  a  game  that  I  have  played  for  years,  and  I  am 

greatly  interested  in. 

9.  This  is  the  lever  which  throws  the  switch  which  directs  the 

train  that  takes  the  track  that  goes  to  Boston. 
ID.  Short  talks  were  made  by  the  captain,  the  coach,  and  by  the 
faculty. 

11.  At  this  school  one  can  study  to  be  a  doctor,  dentist,  farmer, 

a  lawyer,  or  an  engineer. 

12.  I  like  to  cross  the  harbor  on  the  ferry,  to  dodge  in  and  out 

among  the  ships,  see  the  gulls  dart  among  the  waves,  smell 
the  sharp  tang  of  salty  air,  and  to  feel  the  rocking  motion 
of  the  boat. 

13.  In  the  sultry  autumn,  and  when  the  winter's  storms  came,  and 

69 


39 

CLEARNESS  OF  THOUGHT 

when  in  spring  the  winds  whistled,  and  in  the  summer's  heat, 
he  always  wore  the  same  old  coat. 

14.  He  knew  that  if  he  did  not  ignite  the  piece  of  wet  bark  this 

time,  that  he  could  not  dry  his  clothing  or  broil  the  bacon. 

15.  The  next  speaker  said  that  the  need  was  critical,  the  schools 

must  be  enlarged,  and  that  the  paving  now  begun  must  be 
completed,  and  a  new  board  of  health  should  be  created,  that 
the  interest  on  past  debts  had  to  be  paid,  and  the  city 
treasury  was  at  this  moment  out  of  funds. 


40 


EMPHASIS 

Emphasis  by  Position 

40.  Reserve  the  emphatic  positions  in  a  sentence  for  im- 
portant words  or  ideas.  (The  emphatic  positions  are 
the  beginning  and  the  end  —  especially  the  end.) 

Weak  ending:     Then  like  a  flash  a  vivid  memory  of  my  uncle's 

death  came  to  me. 
Weak :     I  demand  the  release  of  the  prisoners,  in  the  first  place. 
Weak:     This  principle  is  one  we  cannot  afford  to  accept,  if  my 

understanding  of  the  question  is  correct. 

Place  the  important  idea  at  the  end.  Secure,  if  possible, 
an  emphatic  beginning.  "  Tuck  in  "  unimportant  modi- 
fiers. 

Emphatic :  Like  a  flash  came  to  mc  a  vivid  memory  of  my 
uncle's  death. 

Emphatic :  I  demand,  in  the  first  place,  the  release  of  the  pris- 
oners. 

Emphatic:  This  principle,  if  my  understanding  of  the  question 
is  correct,  is  one  we  cannot  afford  to  accept. 

Elxercise : 

1.  "  War  is  inevitable,"  he  said. 

2.  1  he  cat  had  been  poisoned  to  all  appearances. 

3.  There   are   several   methods   of   learning   to   swim,   as   every- 

one knows. 

4.  A  liar  is  as  bad  as  a  thief,  in  my  estimation. 

5.  He  saw  a  fight  below  him  in  the  street,  happening  to  look  out 

of  the  window. 


yi 


41 


EMPHASIS  BY  SEPARATION 


Emphasis  by  Separation 

41.    An  idea  which  needs  much  emphasis  may  be  detached, 
and  allowed  to  stand  in  a  sentence  by  itself. 

Faulty :  The  flames  were  by  this  time  beyond  control,  and  the 
walls  collapsed,  and  several  firemen  were  hurt.  [The  ideas 
here  are  too  important  to  be  run  together  in  one  sentence.] 

Right:  By  this  time  the  flames  were  beyond  control,  and  the 
walls  collapsed.     Several  firemen  were  hurt. 

A  quotation  gains  emphasis  when  it  is  separated  from 
what  follows. 

Faulty :  "  The  best  laid  schemes  o'  mice  an'  men 

Gang  aft  a-gley," 
are  some  lines  from  Burns  which  McDonald  was  always  quot- 
ing. 
Right ;  "The  best  laid  schemes  o'  mice  an'  men 

Gang  aft   a-gley." 
McDonald  was  always  quoting  these  lines  from  Burns. 

Direct  discourse  is  more  emphatic  when  it  is  separated 
from  explanatory  phrases,  particularly  from  those 
which  follow. 

Faulty :     Mosher    leaped    to    the    stage    and    shouted    defiantly, 

"  I  will  never  consent  to  that !  "  and  he  looked  as  if  he  meant 

what  he  said. 
Right :     Mosher  leaped  to  the  stage  and   shouted  his   defiance. 

"  I  will  never  agree  to  that !  "     And  he  looked  as  if  he  meant 

what  he  said. 

Exercise : 

1.  After   the   tents   are   pitched,   the  beds   made,   and   the   fires 

started,  the  first  meal  is  cookea  and  served,  and  this  meal 
is  the  beginning  of  camp-life  joy. 

2.  He  tried  to  make  his  wife  vote  for  his  own,  the  Citizen's 

Party,  but  she  firmly  refused. 

72 


42 


EMPHASIS  BY  SUBORDINATION 

3.  At  the  word  of  command  the  dog  rushed  forward ;  the  covey 

rose  with  a  mighty  whir,  and  the  hunter  fired  both  barrels, 
and  the  dog  looked  m  vain  for  a  dead  bird,  and  then  re- 
turned disconsolate. 

4.  I  sat  and  gazed  at  the  motto,  "  Aim  high,  and  believe  your- 

self capable  of  great  things,"  which  my  mother  had  placed 

there  for  me. 
5. .        "A  5ook  of  Verses  underneath  the  Bough, 

A  Jug  of  Wine,  a  Loaf  of  Bread,  and  Thou 
Beside  me  singmg  in  the  Wilderness  " 

were  the  fouf  things  Omar  Khayyam  wanted  to  make  him 

happy. 

Emphasis  by  Subordination 

42.  Do  not  place  the  important  idea  of  a  sentence  in  a  sub- 
ordinate clause  or  phrase.  Make  the  important  idea 
grammatically  independent.  If  possible,  subordinate 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  to  it. 

Faulty:     He  had  a  manner  which  made  me  angry. 

Faulty:     The  lire  spread  to  the  third  story,  when  the  house  was 

doomed. 
Faulty:     For    years    the    Indians    molested    the    white    people, 

thereby  causing  the  settlers  to  want  revenge. 

The   important   idea   shotild   not  be   placed   in   a   zvJiich 
clause,  or  a  zvhen  clause,  or  a  participial  phrase. 

Right:     His  manner  made  me  angry. 

Right:     When  the  fire  spread  to  the  third  story,  the  house  was 

doomed. 
Right:     Years  of  molestation  by   the   Indians   made  the  white 

men  want  revenge. 

Exercise : 

I.  I  was  riding  on  the  train,  when  suddenly  there  was  an  acci- 
dent. 

73 


43 

EMPHASIS  BY  PERIODIC  STRUCTURE 

2.  There  are  two  windows  in  each  bedroom,  thus  insuring  good 

ventilation. 

3.  Yonder  is  the  house  which  is  my  home. 

4.  He  saw  that  argument  was  useless,  so  he  let  her  talk. 

5.  His  clothes  were  very  old,  making  him  look  like  a  tramp. 

The  Periodic  Sentence 

A  sentence  is  periodic  when  the  completion  of  the 
main  thought  is  delayed  until  the  end.  This  delay 
creates  a  feeling  of  suspense.  A  periodic  sentence  is 
doul^ly  emphatic :  it  has  emphasis  by  position  because 
the  important  idea  comes  at  the  end ;  it  has  emphasis 
by  subordination  because  all  ideas  except  the  last  one 
are  grammatically  dependent. 

43.    To   give  emphasis  to  a  loosely   constructed  sentence, 
turn  it  into  periodic  form. 

Loose :     I   saw  two  men   fight   a   duel,   many   years   ago,   on  a 

moonlit  summer  night,  in  a  little  village  in  northern  France. 

[What  is  most  important,  the  time?  the  place?  or  the  actual 

duel?     Place  the  important  idea  last.] 
Periodic:     Many  years  ago,   on   a  moonlit   summer  night,   in  a 

little  village  in  northern  France,  I  saw  two  men  fight  a  duel. 

Loose :  We  left  Yellowstone  Gateway  for  the  ride  of  our  lives 
in  a  six-horse  tally-ho.  [Place  the  important  idea  last,  and 
make  all  other  ideas  grammatically  subordinate.] 

Periodic :  Leaving  Yellowstone  Gateway  in  a  six-horse  tally-ho, 
we  had  the  ride  of  our  lives. 

Loose :  The  river  was  swollen  with  incessant  rain,  and  it 
swept  away  the  dam.  [Which  is  the  important  idea?  W^hy 
not  make  it  appear  more  important  by  subordinating  every- 
thing to  it?l 

Periodic :  The  river,  swollen  with  incessant  rain,  swept  away 
the  dam. 

74 


44 


EMPHASIS  BY  CLIMAX 

Loose:     War  means  to  have  our  pursuit  of  knowledge  and  hap- 
piness rudely  broken  off,  to   feel  the  sting  of  death   and  be- 
rea\ement,    to    saddle    future    generations    with    a    burden    of 
debt  and  national  hatred. 
Periodic :     To   have   our   pursuit    of    knowledge    and   happiness 
,  rudely  broken  off,  to  feel  the  sting  of  death  and  bereavement, 
to  saddle  future  generations  with  a  burden  of  debt  and  na- 
.tional  hajired  —  this  is  war. 
Exercise : 

1.  I  am  happy  when  the  spring  comes,  when  the  sun  is  warm, 

when  the  fielTls  revive. 

2.  He  cares  nothing  for  culture,  for  justice,  for  progress. 

3.  As  the  boat  gathered  speed,  the  golden  sun  was  setting  far 

across  the  harbor. 

4.  He    amassed    a    great    fortune,    standing    there    behind    his 

dingy    counter,    discounting    bills,    pinching    coins,    buying 
cheap  and  selling  dear. 

5.  The    shattered    aqueducts,    pier   beyond    pier,    melt    into    the 

darkness,  from  the  plains  to  the  mountains. 

Order  of  Climax 

44.    In  a  series  of  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  of  noticeable 
difference  in  strength,  use  the  order  of  climax. 

Wrong  order :     He  was  insolent  and  lazy. 

Weak  ending:  Literature  has  expanded  into  a  sea,  where  be- 
fore it  was  only  a  small  stream. 

Weak  ending ;  As  we  listened  to  his  story  we  felt  the  sordid 
misery  and  the  peril  and  fear  of  war. 

Emphatic :     He  was  lazy  and  insolent. 

Emphatic :  The  stream  of  literature  has  swollen  into  a  tor- 
rent, expanded  into  a  sea. 

Emphatic :  As  we  listened  to  his  story  we  felt  the  fear,  the 
peril,  the  sordid  misery  of  war. 

Exercise. 

I.  We  boarded  the  train,  after  having  bought  our  tickets  and 
checked  our  baggage. 

7S 


45 

EMPHASIS  BY  BALANCED  STRUCTURE 

2.  War  brings  famine,  death,  disease  after  it. 

3.  They  have  broken  up  our  homes,  and  enslaved  our  children, 

and  stolen  our  property. 

4.  In  the  old  story,  the  drunken  man,  carried  into  the  duke's  pal- 

ace,  sees    himself   surrounded    with    luxury,  and   imagines 
himself  a  true  prince,  after  waking  up. 

5.  The  becalmed  mariners  were  famished,  hungry. 

The  Balanced  Sentence 

45.  Two  ideas  similar  or  opposite  in  thought  gain  in 
emphasis  when  set  off,  one  against  the  other,  in  simi- 
lar constructions. 

Weak  and  straggling:  This  paper,  like  many  others,  has  many 
bad  features,  but  in  some  ways  it  is  very  good.  The  news 
articles  are  far  better  than  the  editorials,  which  are  feeble. 

Balanced  structure:  This  paper  is  in  some  respects  good;  in 
other  respects  very  poor.  The  news  articles  are  impressive; 
the  editorials  are  feeble. 

Weak  and  complicated :  From  the  East  a  man  who  lives  in 
the  West  can  learn  a  great  deal,  and  an  Easterner  ought  to 
be  able  to  understand  the  West. 

Balanced:  A  Westerner  can  learn  much  from  the  East,  and  an 
Easterner  needs  to  understand  the  West. 

Weak:  Both  Mill  and  Macaulay  influenced  the  younger  writers. 
Mill  taught  some  of  them  to  reason,  but  many  more  of  them 
learned  from  Macaulay  only  a  superficial  eloquence. 

Balanced  :  Both  Mill  and  Macaulay  influenced  the  younger  writ- 
ers. If  Mill  taught  some  of  them  to  reason,  Macaulay 
tempted  many  more  of  them  to  declaim. 

Note. —  Although  excessive  use  of  balance  is  artificial, 
occasional  use  of  it  is  powerful.  It  can  give  to  writ- 
ing either  dignity  (as  in  an  oration)  or  point  (as  in  an 
epigram).  Observe  how  many  proverbs  are  in  bal- 
anced structure.     "  Seeing  is  believing. —  Nothing  ven- 

76 


46 


EMPHASIS  BY  THE  ACTIVE  VOICE 

ture,  nothing  have. —  For  every  grain  of  wit  there  is  a 
grain  of  folly. —  You  cannot  do  wrong  without  suffer- 
ing wrong. —  An  eye  for  an  eye,  a  tooth  for  a  tooth." 
Note  the  effective  use  of  balance  in  Emerson's  Essays, 
particularly  in  Compensation;  and  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, particularly  in  Psalms  and  Proverbs. 

Exercise  : 

1.  Machinery  is  of  course  labor-saving,  but  countless  men  are 

thrown  out  of  work. 

2.  There   is    a    difference   between    success    in    business    and    in 

acquiring  culture. 

3.  I  attend  concerts  for  the  pleasure  of  it,  and  to  get  an  under- 

standing of  music. 

4.  The  stag  in  the  fable  admired  his  horns  and  blamed  his  feet ; 

but  when  the  hunter  came,  his  feet  saved  him,  and  after- 
ward, caught  in  the  thicket,  he  was  destroyed  by  his  horns. 

5.  We  do  not  see  the  stars  at  evening,  sometimes  because  there 

are  clouds  intervening,  but  oftener  because  there  are  glim- 
merings of  light ;  thus  many  truths  escape  us  from  the 
obscurity  we  stand  in.  and  many  more  from  the  state  of 
mind  which  induces  us  to  sit  down  satisfied  with  our 
imaginations  and  of  our  knowledge  unsuspicious.  [This 
sentence  is  correctly  balanced,  except  at  the  end.] 

The  Weak  Effect  of  the  Passive  Voice 

46.  Use  the  active  voice  unless  there  is  a  reason  for  doing 
otherwise.  The  passive  voice  is,  as  the  name  implies, 
not  emphatic. 

Weak:     Your  gift  is  appreciated  by  me. 
Better :     I  appreciate  your  gift. 

Weak  and  vague:     His  step  on  the  porch  was  heard. 
Better:     His  step  sounded  on  the  porch.     [Or]  I  heard  his  step 
on  the  porch. 

77 


47 

EMPHASIS  BY  REPETITION 

The  passive  voice  is  especially  objectionable  when  by 
failing  to  indicate  the  agent  of  the  verb  it  unnecessarily 
mystifies  the  reader. 

Vague:     The  train  was  seen  speeding  toward  us. 
Better :     We  saw  the  tram  speednig  toward  us. 

Exercise : 

1.  Their  minds  were  changed  frequently  as  to  what  profession 

should  be  taken  up  by  them. 

2.  A  gun   should  be  examined  and  oiled  well  before  a  hunter 

starts. 

3.  Finally  the  serenaders  were  recognized. 

4.  In  athletics  a  man  is  developed  physically. 

5.  If  a  man  uses  slang  constantly,  a  good  impression  is  not  made. 

Effective  Repetition 

47a.  The  simplest  and  most  natural  way  to  emphasize  a  word 
or  an  idea  is  to  repeat  it.  The  Bible  is  the  best  stand- 
ard of  simplicity  and  dignity  in  our  language,  and  the 
Bible  uses  repetition  constantly.  A  word  or  idea  that 
is  repeated  must,  of  course,  be  important  enough  to  de- 
serve emphasis. 

Fairly  emphatic :     He  works  and  toils  and  labors,  but  he  seems 

never  to  get  anywhere. 
Very  emphatic:     Work,  work,  work,  all  he  does  is  work,  and 

still  he  seems  never  to  get  anywhere. 
Fairly  emphatic:     How  did  the  general  meet  this  new  menace? 

He  withdrew  before  it! 
Very  emphatic:     How  did  the  general  meet  this  new  menace? 

He  withdrew  !     He  retreated  !     He  ran  away  ! 
Homely   but    emphatic:     "I    went    under,"    said    the    old    salt; 

"bows,  gunnels,  and  starn  —  all  under." 
Deliberately  too  emphatic  :     Everywhere  we  hear  of  efficiency  — 

efficiency    experts,    efficiency   bureaus,    efficiency   methods,    in 

78 


47 


EMPHASIS  BY  REPETITION 

the  office,  in  the  school,  in  the  home  —  until  one  longs  to  fly 
to  some  savage  island  beyond  the  reach  of  inhuman  modern 
science. 

b.  Not  only  words,  but  an  entire  grammatical  structure 
may  be  repeated  on  a  large  scale  for  emphasis. 

Weak:  We  hope  that  this  shipment  will  reach  you  in  good 
condition,  and  that  you  will  favor  us  with  other  orders  in  the 
future,  which  will  be  given  prompt  and  courteous  attention. 
[This  sentence  is  flimsy  and  spineless  because  the  writer  had 
a  timid  reluctance  to  repeat.] 

Strong:  We  hope  that  this  shipment  will  reach  you  in  good 
condition.  We  believe  that  the  quality  of  our  goods  will  in- 
duce you  to  send  us  a  second  order.  We  assure  you  that  such 
an  order  will  receive  prompt  and  courteous  attention.  [Note 
the  emphasis  derived  from  the  resolute  march  of  the  expres- 
sions IVe  hope.  We  believe.  We  assure.] 

Emphatic:  Through  the  patience,  the  courage,  the  high  char- 
acter of  Alfred  the  country  was  saved  —  saved  from  the 
rapacities  of  fortune,  saved  from  the  malignancy  of  its  ene- 
mies, saved  from  the  sluggish  despair  of  the  people  of  Eng- 
land themselves. 

Emphatic  and  natural :  This  corner  of  the  garden  was  my 
first  playground.  Here  I  made  my  first  toddling  eft'ort  to 
walk.  Here  on  the  soft  grass  I  learned  the  delight  of  out- 
of-doors.  Here  I  became  acquainted  with  the  bull-frog,  and 
the  bumble-bee,  and  the  neighbor's  dog. 

Emphatic  and  delightful:  He  maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green 
pastures ;  he  leadcth  me  beside  the  still  waters.  He  restoreth 
my  soul ;  he  leadeth  me  in  the  paths  of  righteousness  for  his 
name's  sake. 

Exercise: 

1.  He  kept  digging  away  for  gold  through  long  years. 

2.  Breaking  against  the  shore,  came  innumerable  waves. 

3.  Sand,  sagebrush,   shimmering   flat  horizon.     I   could   not  en- 

dure the  barren  monotony  of  the  desert. 
79 


48 

EMPHASIS  BY  VARIETY 

4.  We  want  you  to  come  and  visit  us,  and  bring  along  a  good 

appetite  and  your  customary  high  spirits.     Plan   to   stay  a 
long  time. 

5.  'Twas  bitter  cold  outside.     The  cat  meowed  until  I  had  to 

let  her  in. 

Offensive  Repetition 

Careless  repetition  attracts  attention  to  words  that  do 
not  need  emphasis.  It  is  extremely  annoying  to  the 
reader. 

48a.  Unless  a  word  or  phrase  is  repeated  deliberately  to  gain 
force  or  clearness,  its  repetition  is  a  blunder.  Get  rid 
of  recurring  expressions  in  one  of  three  ways:  (i)  by 
substituting  equivalent  expressions,  (2)  by  using  pro- 
nouns more  liberally,  (3)  by  rearranging  the  sentence 
so  as  to  say  once  what  has  awkwardly  been  said  twice. 
Each  of  these  schemes  is  ilhistrated  below. 

1.  Repetition  cured  by  the  use  of  equivalent  expressions 
(synonyms). 

Bad:  Just  as  we  were  half  way  down  the  lake,  just  off  Mil- 
waukee, we  began  to  feel  a  slight  motion  of  the  ship  and  the 
wind  began  to  freshen.  The  wind  began  to  blow  more  fiercely 
from  the  south  and  the  waves  began  to  leap  high.  The  boat 
began  to  pitch  and  roll. 

Right:  Just  as  we  were  half  way  down  the  lake,  opposite  Mil- 
waukee, we  began  to  feel  a  slight  motion  of  the  ship,  for  the 
wind  had  freshened.  Before  long  a  gale,  blowing  from  the 
south,  kicked  up  a  heavy  sea  and  caused  the  boat  to  pitch  and 
roll.  [Notice  how  combining  the  last  two  sentences  helps  to 
solve  the  problem  of  the  last  began,  besides  giving  firmer 
texture  to  the  construction.] 

2.  Repetition   cured  by   the   use   of   pronouns.     (In   using 

80 


48 


EMPHASIS  BY  VARIETY 

this  method,  one  should  take  care  that  the  reference  of 
the  pronouns  is  clear.) 

Bad:  The  Laiv  Building,  the  Commerce  Building,  and  the  Sci- 
ence Building  are  ciose  together.  The  Commerce  Building 
is  south  of  the  Law  Building,  and  the  Science  Building  is 
south  of  the  Commerce  Budding  The  Law  Building  is  old 
and  dilapidated.  The  Commerce  Building  is  a  red  brick  build- 
ing, trimmed  in  terra-cotta.  The  Science  Building  resembles 
the  Commerce  Building. 

Right:  The  La\4f,  Commerce,  and  Science  Buildings  are  close 
together  in  a  row.  The  first  of  these  is  old  and  dilapidated. 
South  of  it  stands  the  Commerce  Building,  zvhich,  because  of 
its  red  brick  and  terra-cotta  trimmings,  somewhat  resembles 
the  Science  Building. 

3.   Repetition  cured  by  rearranging  and  condensing. 

Bad:  The  autumn  is  my  favorite  of  all  the  seasons.  While 
autumn  in  the  city  is  not  such  a  pleasant  season  as  autumn 
in  the  country,  yet  even  in  the  city  my  preference  will  always 
be  for  the  autumn. 

Right:  My  favorite  season  is  autumn.  I  like  it  best  in  the 
country,  but  even  in  the  city  it  is  the  best  time  of  the  year. 

b.  Avoid  a  monotonous  repetition  of  sentence  structure. 
To  give  variety  to  successive  sentences:  (i)  vary  the 
length,  (2)  vary  the  beginnings,  (3)  avoid  a  series  of 
similar  compound  sentences,  (4)  interchange  loose 
with  periodic  structure,  (5)  use  rhetorical  question, 
exclamation,  direct  discourse,  (6)  avoid  an  excessive 
use  of  participles  or  adjectives. 

I.  Vary  the  length  of  sentences. 

Bad :  Walter  came  up  the  path  carrying  Betty  in  his  arms. 
She  was  wet  from  head  to  toe.  Damp  curls  clung  to  her  pale 
face.  Water  dripped  from  her  clothes.  One  hand  hung 
loosely  over  Walter's  arm.    The  other  held  a  live  duckling. 

81 


EMPHASIS  BY  VARIETY 

Slic  had  saved  the  little  duck  from  drowning.  This  was 
Betty's  first  day  in  the  country. 
Right :  VVaher  came  up  the  path  carrying  Betty  in  his  arms  — 
little  Betty  who  was  spending  her  first  day  in  the  country. 
She  was  wet  from  head  to  toe;  damp  curls  clung  to  her  pale 
face,  and  water  dripped  from  her  clothes.  In  one  hand  she 
held  a  live  duckling.  Her  face  lighted  with  courage  as  she 
told  how  she  jumped  into  the  pond  and  saved  the  little  duck 
from  drowning. 

2,  Vary  the  beginnings  of  sentences.  Do  not  allow  too 
many  sentences  to  begin  with  the  subject,  or  with  a 
time  clause,  or  with  a  participle,  or  with  so.  When  you 
have  finished  a  composition,  rapidly  read  over  the  open- 
ing words  of  each  sentence,  to  see  if  there  is  sufficient 
variety. 

Bad  [too  many  sentences  begin  directly  with  the  subject]  :  Our 
way  is  circuitous.  A  sharp  turn  brings  us  round  a  rocky  point. 
The  road  drops  suddenly  into  a  little  valley.  The  roof  of  a 
house  appears  in  a  grove  of  trees  below.  A  cottage  is  there 
and  a  flower  garden.     An  old-fashioned  well  is  near  the  door. 

Right :  Presently,  on  our  circuitous  way,  we  make  a  sharp  turn 
round  a  rocky  point.  Before  us  the  road  drops  suddenly  into 
a  little  valley.  In  a  grove  of  trees  below  appears  the  roof  of 
a  house,  and  as  we  draw  nearer  we  see  a  cottage  surrounded 
by  flowers.  Nothing  could  be  more  attractive  to  a  weary 
traveler  than  the  old-fashioned  well  near  the  door. 

3.  Avoid  a  series  of  similar  compound  sentences,  espe- 
cially those  of  two  parts  of  equal  length,  joined  by 
and  or  but. 

Bad :  Ring  was  a  sheep  dog,  and  tended  the  flock  with  his 
master.  One  day  there  came  a  deep  snow,  and  the  flock  did 
not  return.  They  found  the  herder  frozen  stifif,  and  the  dog 
shivering  beside  him. 

82 


48 


EMPHASIS  BY  VARIETY 

Right:  Ring  was  a  sheep  dog,  and  tended  the  flock  with  his 
master.  One  day  there  came  a  deep  snow.  When  the  flock 
failed  to  return,  the  men  became  uneasy,  and  began  a  search. 
They  found  the  herder  frozen  stift',  with  the  dog  shivering 
beside  him. 

4.  Change  occasionally  from  loose  to  periodic  or  balanced 
structure.  (See  43  and  45). 

Monotonous:  I  stood  at  the  foot  of  Tunbridge  hill.  I  saw  on 
the  horizon  a  d«nse  wood,  which,  in  the  e\  ening  sunlight,  was 
veiled  in  purple  haze  [Loose].  On  the  left  was  the  village, 
the  houses  appearing  like  specks  in  the  distance  [Loose]. 
Nearer  on  the  right  was  the  creek,  winding  through  the  wil- 
lows [Loose].  The  creek  approached  nearer  until  it  reached 
the  dam,  over  which  it  rushed  tumultuously  [Loose].  Near 
by  was  a  thicket  of  tall  trees,  through  which  I  could  see  the 
white  tents  of  my  fellow  campers,  and  their  glowing  camp 
fires  [Loose]. 

Right:  Far  south  from  Tunbridge  hill,  on  the  dim  horizon,  I 
saw,  veiled  in  the  evening  haze,  a  dense  wood  [Periodic,  long, 
conveying  the  idea  of  distance  better  than  a  loose  sentence]. 
On  my  left  stood  the  village,  the  houses  like  specks :  on  my 
right  wound  the  creek,  nearer  and  nearer  through  the  willows 
[Balanced].  The  creek  advanced  by  slow  sinuous  turns,  until, 
reaching  the  dam,  it  plunged  over  tumultuously  [Loose]. 
Through  a  thicket  of  tall  trees,  near  at  hand,  I  could  see  the 
white  tents  of  my  fellow  campers,  and  their  glowing  camp 
fires  [Periodic  through  the  middle  of  the  sentence;  then 
loose]. 

5.  Use  question,  exclamation,  direct  quotation. 

Somewhat  flat :  He  asked  me  the  road  to  Camden.  I  did  not 
know.     I  told  him  to  ask  Thurber,  who  knew  the  country  well. 

Better :  He  asked  me  the  road  to  Camden.  The  road  to  Cam- 
den? How  should  I  know?  "Ask  Thiirbcr,"  I  said  impa- 
tiently; "he  knows  this  country.     I'm  a  stranger." 

83 


48 


EMPHASIS  BY  VARIETY 

6.  Avoid  an  excessive  use  of  participles.  Do  not  pile  ad- 
jectives around  every  noun.  Above  all,  do  not  form  a 
habit  of  using  adjectives  in  pairs  or  triplets. 

Bad  :  Sitting  by  the  window,  I  saw  a  sharp,  dazzling  flash  of 
lightning,  and  heard  a  loud  rumbling  crash  of  heavy  thunder, 
warning  me  of  the  coming  of  the  storm.  Darting  across  the 
gray,  leaden  sky,  the  quick,  jagged  lightning  flashed  inces- 
santly. The  tall  stately  poplar  trees  thrashed  around  in  the 
boisterous  wind.  Then  across  the  window,  like  a  great  white 
curtain,  swept  the  streaming,  blinding  rain. 

Right:  I  sat  bj'  the  window.  Suddenly  a  sharp  flash  of  light- 
ning and  a  roll  of  thunder  gave  warning  of  the  approach  of 
a  storm.  Soon  lightning  zig-zagged  across  the  sky  inces- 
santly. The  wind  huddled  the  poplar  trees.  Then  like  a  white 
curtain  across  the  window  streamed  the  rain. 

Exercise: 

1.  The  parts  of  the  tables  arc  not  put  together  at  the  factory, 

but  the  different  parts  are  shipped  in  different  shipments. 

2.  In   order  to  convince   the   reader   that   the   present   manage- 

ment of  farms  is  inefficient,  I  shall  give  some  examples 
of  inefficiency  in  the  farm  management  on  some  farms  with 
which  I  am  acquainted. 

3.  When  one  wishes  to  learn  how  to  swim  one  must  first  be- 

come accustomed  to  the  water.  The  best  way  to  become 
accustomed  to  the  water  is  to  go  into  it  frequently.  After 
one  has  become  accustomed  to  the  water  he  may  begin  to 
learn  the  strokes. 

4.  The  Life   of  Sir   IValtcr  Scott,  written  by  J.   G.   Lockhart, 

is  an  interesting  biography  of  this  great  writer.  It  con- 
sists of  a  short  biography  by  Scott  himself,  and  also  con- 
sists of  a  continuation  of  this  biography  by  his  son-in-law, 
J.  G.  Lockhart. 

5.  If  a  piece  of  steel   is  kept  hot   for  several   seconds,   it  will 

lose  some  of  its  hardness.  If  kept  hot  longer,  it  will  lose 
more  of  its  hardness.     Along  with  losing  its  hardness   it 


49 


EMPHASIS 

will  lose  its  brittlencss.  If  the  piece  of  steel  is  heated 
contimially  it  will  lose  nearly  all  its  hardness  and  brittle- 
ness.     In  other  words,  it  will  lose  its  "  temper.'' 

49.  EXERCISE  IN  EMPHASIS 

A.     Lack  of  Emphasis  in  General 
Make   the    following   sentences   emphatic. 

1.  The  man  is  a  tlfief  who  fails  in  business  but  continues  to  live 

in  luxury. 

2.  The   plant   was   withered   and   dry,   not   having  been    watered 

for  over  a  week. 

3.  Much  time  is  saved  in  Chicago  by  taking  the  elevated  cars,  if 

you  have  a  great  distance  to  travel. 

4.  The  clock  struck  eleven,  when  he  immediately  seized  his  hat 

and  left. 

5.  These  liberal  terms  should  be  taken  advantage  of  by  us. 

6.  The  study  of  biology  has  proved  very  interesting,  as  far  as  I 

have  gone. 

7.  Who  is  this  that  comes  to  the  foot  of  the  guillotine,  crouch- 

ing, trembling? 

8.  They  must  pay  the  penalty.     Their  death  is  necessary.    They 

have  caused  hami  enough. 

9.  I  intend  to  get  up  fifteen  minutes  earlier,  thereby  giving  myself 

time  to  eat  a  good  breakfast. 
ID.  The  book  was  reread  several  times,  for  I  never  grew  tired  of 
it. 

11.  "What   is   the   aim   of   a    university   education  ?"   the   speaker 

asked. 

12.  A  bicycle   is    sometimes   ridden   when   a   tire   contains   no   air, 

total   ruin   resulting   from   the   weight   of   the   rim    upon   the 
flat  tire. 

13.  He   sprang   forward   the   instant  the   pistol   cracked,   since   the 

start  of  a  sprint  is  very  important,  and  one  cannot  overdo 
the  practicing  of  it. 

8s 


49 


EMPHASIS 

14.  Sometimes  the   fuses   fail  to  burn,  or  burn  too   fast,  causing 

an  explosion  before  the  workmen  are  prepared  for  it. 

15.  How  father  made  soap  was  always  a  mystery  to  me.     Crack- 

lings saved  from  butchering  time,  lye,  and  water  went  into 
the  kettle  on  a  warm  spring  day  and  came  out  in  the  form 
of  soap  a  few  hours  later,  to  my  great  astonishment. 

B.     Loose  or  Unemphatic  Structure 

Make    the    following    sentences    more    emphatic    by 
throwing  them  into  periodic  form. 

1.  It  was  Tom,  as  I  had  expected. 

2.  I  will  not  tell,  no  matter  how  you  beg. 

3.  The  supremacy  of  the  old  river  steamboat  is  gone  forever,  un- 

less conditions  should  be  utterly  changed. 

4.  Across  the  desert  he  traveled   alone,  and   over   strange   seas, 

and  through  quaint  foreign  villages. 

5.  The  hot  water  dissolves  the  glue  in  the  muresco,  making  the 

mixture  more  easily  applied. 

6.  Visions  of   rich  meadows   and  harvest-laden   fields  now   pass 

before  my  eyes,  as  I  sit  by  the  fire. 

7.  Some    of    the    women    were    weeping    bitterly,    thinking    they 

would  never  see  their  homes  again. 

8.  I    splashed   along   on    foot    for   three   miles   after   night    in   a 

driving  rain. 

9.  Very  high  rent  is  demanded,  thus  keeping  the  peasants  con- 

stantly in  debt. 
ID.  Roderigo    was    in   despair   because   he   had    been    rejected    by 
Desdemona,  and  was  ready  to  end  his  life,  by  the  time  lago 
entered. 

11.  Through   storm   and  cold  the  open  boat  was  brought  to  the 

shore  at  Inst,  after  toil  and  suffering,  with  great  difficulty. 

12.  The  car  came  to  a  violent  stop  against  a  rock  pile,  after  it 

demolished  two  fences,  upset  a  hen-house,  and  scared  a  pig 
out  of  his  wits. 

13.  The   Panama   Canal   is   the    fulfilment   of  the   dreams   of    old 

Spanish  adventurers,  the  desire.-;  of  later  merchant  princes, 
86 


49 


EMPHASIS 

and  the  demand  of  modern  nations   for  free  traffic  on  the 
seas. 

14.  The  fiddle  yelled,  and  the  feet  ©f  the  dancers  beat  the  floor, 

and  the  spectators  applauded,  and  the  room  fairly  rang. 

15.  The   man   with    the   best   character,   not   the    man    with    most 

money,  will  come  out  on  top  in  the  end. 


•     C.     Faulty  Repetition 

Repetition  in  the  following  sentences  is  objectionable, 
because  it  attracts  attention  to  words  or  constructions 
that  do  not  need  to  be  emphasized  Improve  the  sen- 
tences, avoiding  unnecessary  repetition. 

1.  He  is  a  great  friend  of  boys,  and  views  things  from  the  boys' 

point  of  view. 

2.  In  the  case  of  the  strike  at  Lawrence,  A-Iassachusetts,  the  real 

cause  was  low  wages  caused  by  immigration  and  child  labor. 

3.  First,  a  subject  must  be  chosen,  and  in  choosing  a   subject, 

choose  one  that  you  know  something  about. 

4.  There  are  great  opportunities  in  the  field   of   science,   and   a 

scientist  who  makes  a  mark  in  the  world  of  science  makes 
a  mark  for  himself  everywhere. 

5.  While  the  practical  man  is  learning  skill  in  the  practical  world, 

the  college  man  is  attaining  a  development  of  mentality  that 
will  surpass  that  of  the  practical  man  when  the  college  man 
learns  the  skill  of  the  practical  man. 

6.  The  field  is  dragged  and  rolled.     Dragging  and  rolling  leaves 

the  ground  smooth  and  ready  for  planting. 

7.  A  great  number  and  variety  of  articles  appears  in  every  issue. 

There  is  a  complete  review  of  each  subject.  It  is  treated 
in  a  short,  but  thorough  manner. 

8.  They  gave  me  a  hearty  welcome.     They  stood  back  and  looked 

at  me.  They  wanted  to  see  if  three  months  in  the  city  had 
made  any  changes  in  me.     But  they  said  it  had  not. 

9.  Engineering  is  looked  upon  by  many  students  as  an  easy  and 

uninteresting  study,  but  to  my  knowledge  it  is  not  uninter- 
87 


49 

EMPHASIS 

esting  and  easy.  Engineering  is  probably  one  of  the  hard- 
est courses  in  college.  To  me  it  is  also  the  most  interesting. 
lo.  A  duck  hunter  should  have  a  place  to  hunt  where  ducks  are 
frequently  found  in  duck  season.  Ducks  often  light  in  the 
backwater  along  a  river,  and  in  ponds.  They  are  often 
found  in  small  lakes.  Corn  fields  are  common  feeding 
places  for  ducks.  Ducks  make  regular  trips  to  cornfields 
within  reach  of  a  body  of  water  such  as  a  river  or  lake. 
It  is  their  nature  to  spend  the  night  in  the  water,  and  in  the 
morning  and  in  the  evening  they  go  out  to  the  fields  to  feed. 


88 


50 


GRAMMAR 

Case 

50a.  The  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case,  even 
when  the  verb  is  remote,  or  understood  (not  ex- 
pressed). 

Wrong:     They  are  as  old  as  iis. 
Right:     They  are  as  old  as  we  [are]. 
Wrong:     He  is  taller  than  her. 
Right:     He  is  taller  than  she  [is]. 

Note. —  Than  and  as  are  conjunctions,  not  prepositions. 
When  they  are  followed  by  a  prc/noun  merely,  this  pro- 
naun  is  not  their  object,  but  part  of  a  clause  the  rest  of 
which  may  be  understood.  The  case  of  this  pronoun  is 
determined  by  its  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  unex- 
pressed clause.  Sometimes  the  understood  clause  calls 
for  the  objective :  "  I  like  his  brother  better  than  1 1 
like]  him."  Than  whom,  though  ungrammatical,  is 
sanctioned  by  usage. 

b.    Guard  against  the  improper  attraction  of  who  into  the 
objective  case  by  intervening  expressions  like  he  says. 

Wrong:  The  man  whom  they  believed  was  the  cause  of  the 
trouble  left  the  country.  \Tliey  belieicd  is  parenthetical,  and 
the  subject  of  xvas  is  wAo.] 

Right:  The  man  who  they  believed  was  the  cause  of  the  trou- 
ble left  the  country. 

Wrong:     Whom  do  you  suppose  made  us  a  visit? 

Right:     Who  do  you  suppose  made  us  a  visit? 

Guard  against  the  improper  attraction  of  who  or  who- 
ever into  the  objective  case  by  a  preceding  verb  or 
preposition. 

89 


50 


GRAMMAR  — CASE 

Wrong :  Punish  whomever  is  guilty.  [The  pronoun  is  the  sub- 
ject of  is.  The  object  of  punish  is  the  entire  clause  ivhocver 
is  guilty.] 

Right :     Punish  whoever  is  guilty. 

Wrong:  The  mystery  as  to  whom  had  rendered  him  this  serv- 
ice remained.  [The  pronoun  is  the  subject  of  had  rendered. 
The  object  of  the  preposition  is  the  entire  clause  ivho  had 
rendered  him  this  seriice.] 

Right ;  The  mystery  as  to  who  had  rendered  him  this  service 
remained. 

C.  The  predicate  complement  o£  the  verb  to  be  (in  any  of 
its  forms,  is,  was,  were,  be,  etc.)  is  in  the  nominative 
case.  To  be  never  takes  an  object,  because  it  does 
not  express  action. 

Wrong:     Was  it  her?     Was  it  them?     It  is  me. 

Right:     Was  it  she?     Was  it  they?     It  is  I. 

Wrong:     The  happiest  people  there  were  him  and  his  mother. 

Right :     The  happiest  people  there  were  he  and  his  mother. 

d.  The  object  of  a  preposition  or  a  verb  is  in  the  objective 

case. 

Wrong :     Some  of  we   fellows  went  fishing. 
Right :     Some  of  us  fellows  went  fishing. 
Wrong:     That  seems  incredible  to  you  and  I. 
Right :     That  seems  incredible  to  you  and  me. 
Wrong:     Who  did  they  detect? 
Right :     Whom  did  they  detect  ? 

e.  The  "  assumed  "  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  in  the  objec- 

tive case. 

Right:  I  wanted  him  to  go.  [Him  to  go  is  the  group  object 
of  the  verb  wanted.  To  go,  being  an  infinitive,  cannot  assert 
an  action,  and  consequently  cannot  take  a  subject.  But  to  go 
implies  that  something  is  at  least  capable  of  action.  Him 
is  the  latent  or  assumed  subject  of  the  action  implied  in  to  go.] 

90 


60 


GRAMMAR  — CASE 

Right:     Whom  do  you  wish  to  be  your  leader?     [lyiiom  is  the 
assumed  subject  of  the  infinitive  to  be] 

f.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  express  possession  is  in  the 

possessive  case.  Do  not  omit  the  apostrophe  (See  97) 
from  nouns,  or  from  the  pronouns  one's  and  other's. 
Most  of  tlie  other  possessive  pronouns  do  not  require 
an  ai)ostrophe. 

Right :     The  man's  hair  is  gray. 

Right :     The  machine  does  its  work  well.     [It's  would  mean  it 

IS.] 

Right:     One  should  do  one's  duty. 

g.  A  noun  or  pronoun  linked  with  a  gerund  should  be  in 

the  possessive  case  whenever  the  use  of  the  objective 
case  might  cause  confusion. 

Faulty:  Is  there  any  criticism  of  Arthur  going? 
Right:  Is  there  any  criticism  of  Arthur's  going? 
Right:     I  had  not  heard  of  his  being  sick. 

Right,  but  slightly  less  desirable :     I  had  not  heard  of  him  be- 
ing sick. 

Note. —  In  other  instances  than  those  in  which  clearness 
is  involved  many  good  writers  use  the  objective  case 
with  the  gerund.  But  even  in  these  instances  most 
writers  prefer  the  possessive  case. 

h.    It  is  usually  awkward  and  slightly  illogical  to  attribute 
possession  to  inanimate  objects. 

Awkward  :     The  farm's  management. 
Better:     The  management  of  the   farm. 
Awkward  :     The  stomach's  lining. 
Better:     The  lining  of  the  stomach. 

Note. —  Usage  justifies  many  exceptions,  particularly  (r) 

9« 


51 

GRAMMAR  —  Na'MBER 

expressions  that  involve  time  or  measure,  a  day's  zvork, 
a  hair's  breadth,  a  year's  salary,  a  zvcek's  vacation,  a 
cable's  length;  and  (2)  expressions  that  involve  per- 
sonification, explicit  or  implied.  Reason's  voice,  the  lazv's 
delay,  for  mercy's  sake,  the  heart's  desire,  the  tempest's 
breath. 

1.    A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  person,  gender, 
and  number,  but  not  in  case. 

Right .     /,  zulw  am  older,  know  better. 

Right:     Tell  iiic,  zcho  am  older,  your  trouble. 

Right:     Many  a  man  has  saved  himself  by  counsel. 

Exercise : 

1.  1  am  as  old  as  (he,  him).     They  may  be  pluckier  than  (we, 

us).     Nobody  is  less  conceited  than   (she,  her). 

2.  He  gave  help  to  (whoever,  whomever)  wanted  it.     The  girls 

(who,  whom)   they  say  have  the  worst  taste  are  on  a  com- 
mittee to  select  the  class  pin. 

3.  Four  of    (we,  us)   boys  were  left  without  a  cent.     That  is  a 

good  investment  for  her  cousin  and   (she,  her). 

4.  It  was    (he,  him).     It  is    (they,   them).     The   sole   occupants 

of  the  car  were  his  chum  and   (he,  him). 

5.  I    had   not   heard    of    (his,   him)    being   sick.     She    does    not 

approve  of   (our,  us)   being  late  to  dinner.     (They,  them) 
who  labor  now  the  Master  wdl  reward. 

Number 

51a.  Each,  every,  every  one,  everybody,  anybody,  either, 
neither,  no  one,  nobody,  and  similar  words  are  singu- 
lar. 

Wrong :     Everybody  did  their  best. 
Right:     Everybody  did  his  best. 
Wrong:     Each  of  my  three  friends  were  there. 
Right :     Each  of  my  three  friends  was  there. 

92 


51 

GRAMMAR  —  NUMBER 

Wrong :     Either  of  the  candidates  are  capable  of  making  a  good 

ofHcer. 
Right :     Either  of  the  candidates  is  capable  of  making  a  good 

officer. 

b.   Do  not  let  this  or  that  when  modifying  kind  or  sort  be 
attracted  into  the  plural  by  a  following  noun. 

Wrong:     He  knew  nothing  of  those  kmd  of  activities. 
Right:     He  knew  nothing  of  that  kind  of  activities. 
Wrong:     1  never»did  like  these  sort  of  post  cards. 
Right:     I  never  did  like  this  sort  of  post  cards. 

C.    Collective  nouns  may  be  regarded  as  singular  or  plural, 
according  to  the  meaning  intended. 


Right 
Right 
Right 


The  crowd   is  waiting. 

The  crowd  are  not  agreed. 

Webster  maintained   that  the   United    States   is 


separable  union ;  Hayne  that  the  United  States  are  a  separable 

imion. 
English  usage :     The  government  were   considering  a  new  bill 

regarding  labor. 
American  usage :     The  government  was  glad  to  place  our  troops 

at  the  disposal  of  General  Foch. 

d.   Do  not  use  don't  in  the  third  person  singular.     Use 
doesn't.     Don't  is  a  contraction  of  do  not. 

Wrong:     He  don't  get  up  early  on  Sunday  morning. 
Right:     He  doesn't  get  up  early  on  Sunday  morning. 

Exercise : 

1.  She  said  not  to  buy  those  sort  of  carpet  tacks.     These  kind 

of  apples  won't  keep.     I  don't  care  for  these  boasting  kind 
of  travelers. 

2.  Neither  of  us  were  in  condition  to  run  the  race.     Every  one 

assured  Mrs.  Mcrton  they  had  spent  a  pleasant  evening. 

3.  He  don't  suffer  much  now.     I  don't  care  if  she  don't  come  to- 

day. 

93 


52 

GRAMMAR  —  AGREEMENT 

4.  Each  of  us  in  that  dismal  waiting  room  were  angry  with  the 

agent  for  telhng  us  the  train  was  not  late. 

5.  No  one  of  the  girls  would  tell  their  age.     It  don't  matter. 

Agreement 

52a.    A  verb  agrees  in  number  with  the  subject,  not  with  a 
noun  which  intervenes  between  it  and  the  subject. 

Wrong:     The  si;?e  of  the  plantations  vary. 

Right:     The  size  of  the  plantations  varies. 

Wrong:  The  increasing  use  of  luxuries  are  a  menace  to  the 
country. 

Right :  The  increasing  use  of  luxuries  is  a  menace  to  the  coun- 
try. 

Wrong:  The  prices  of  grain  fluctuates  in  response  to  the  de- 
mand. 

Right:  The  prices  of  grain  fluctuate  in  response  to  the  de- 
mand. [Or]  The  price  of  grain  fluctuates  in  response  to  the 
demand. 

b.  The  number  of  the  verb  is  not  affected  by  the  addition 
to  the  subject  of  words  introduced  by  with,  together 
with,  no  less  than,  as  well  as,  and  the  like. 

Wrong:     The  mayor  of  the  city,  as  well  as  several  aldermen, 

have  investigated  the  charges. 
Right:     The  mayor  of  the  city,  as  well  as  several  aldermen,  has 

investigated  the  charges. 

C.  Singular  subjects  joined  by  or  or  nor  take  a  singular 
verb. 

Wrong:     Either  the  second  or  the  third  of  the  plans  they  have 

devised  are  acceptable. 
Right:     Either  the  second  or  the  third  of  the  plans  they  have 

devised  is  acceptable. 


GRAMMAR  —  AGREEMENT 

d.  A  subject  consisting  of  two  or  more  nouns  joined  by 

and  takes  a  plural  verb. 

Right :     The  hunting  and  fishing  are  good. 

e.  A  verb  should  agree  in  number  with  the  subject,  not 

with  a  predicate  noun. 

Wrong:     The  weak  point  in  the  team  were  the  fielders. 
Right:     The  weak  point  in  the  team  was  the  fielders. 
Wrong:     Laziness  and  dissipation  is  the  cause  of  his  failure. 
Right :     Laziness  and  dissipation  are  the  cause  of  his  failure. 

f.  In  There  is  and  There  are  sentences  the  verb  should 

agree  in  number  with  the  noun  that  follows  it. 

Wrong:     There  is  very  good  grounds  for  such  a  decision. 
Right :     There  are  very  good  grounds  for  such  a  decision. 
Wrong :     There  was  present  a  man,  two  women,  and  a  child. 
Right :     There  were  present  a  man,  two  women,  and  a  child. 

Exercise : 

1.  The  sound  of  falling  acorns  (is,  are)  one  of  the  delights  of 

an  autumn  evening.  Eye  strain  through  ill-fit  glasses  (is, 
are)  injurious  to  the  general  health,  but  reading  without 
glasses  (is,  are)  often  more  harmful  still. 

2.  Neither  the  baritone  nor  the  tenor  (has,  have)  as  good  a  voice 

as  the  soprano.  The  guitar  or  the  mandolin  (is,  are)  al- 
ways out  of  tune. 

3.  The  Amazon  with  its  tributaries   (afifords,  afford)   access  to 

the  sea.  The  conductor  of  the  freight  train,  along  with  the 
engineer  and  fireman  of  the  passenger,  (was,  were)  in- 
jured. 

4.  Ghost  stories  late  at  night  (is,  are)  a  crime  against  children. 

My  reason  for  knowing  that  it  is  six  o'clock  (is,  are)  the 
factory  whistles. 

5.  There  (was,  were)  in  the  same  coach  a  dozen  singing  fresh- 

men.    Years  of  experience  in  buying  clothes   (gives,  give) 
me  confidence  in  my  judgment. 
95 


GRAMMAR  — 5//^LL  AND  WILL 
Shall  and    Will,  Should   and   Would 

Although  there  is  a  tendency  to  disregard  subtle  dis- 
tinctions between  shall  and  zvill  in  ordinary  speech,  it  is 
desirable  to  preserve  the  more  important  distinctions  in 
written  discourse. 

53.  To  express  simple  futurity  or  mere  expectation,  use 
shall  with  the  first  person  (both  singular  and  plural) 
and  will  with  the  second  and  third. 

I  shall  go.  We  shall  walk. 

You  will  play.  You  will  hear. 

He  will  sing.  They  will  reply. 

To  express  resolution  or  emphatic  assurance,  reverse 
the  usage ;  that  is,  use  will  with  the  first  person  (both 
singular  and  plural),  and  shall  with  the  second  and 
third. 

I  will ;  I  tell  you,  I  will.  We  will  not  be  excluded. 

You  shall  do  what  I  bid.  You  shall  not  delay  us. 

He  shall  obey  me.  They  shall  pay  the  tribute. 

In  asking  questions,  use  the  form  expected  in  the  answer. 

"Shall  I  go?"  I  asked  myself  musingly.  "Shall  we  take  a 
walk?"  "You  promise.  But  will  you  pay?"  "Will  it  rain 
tomorrow  ?  " 

Should  and  zvould  follow  the  rules  given  for  shall  and  will 

Mere  statement  of  a  fact : 

I  [or  We]  should  like  to  go. 

You  [or  He  or  They]  would  of  course  accept  the  ofifer. 

Resolution  or  emphatic  assurance: 

I  [or  We]  would  ne\er  go  under  terms  so  degrading. 
You  [or  He  or  They]  should  decline;  honor  demands  it. 

96 


54 


GRAMMAR  — PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Should  lias  also  a  special  use  in  the  subjunctive  (in  all  per- 
son^) to  express  a  condition;  and  Zioiild  has  a  special 
use  (ui  all  persons  J  to  express  a  wish,  or  customary 
action. 

If  it  should  rain,  I  shall  not  go. 

If  I  should  remain,  it  would  probably  clear  off. 

Would  that  I  could  swim ! 

He  [I,  We*  You,  They]  would  often  sit  there  by  the  hour. 

Exercise : 

1.  I    (shall,    will)    probably    do    as    he    says.     I'm    determined; 

I  (shall,  will)  go!  We  (shall,  will;  see  what  tomorrow 
(shall,  will)  bring  forth. 

2.  The  train    (shall,  will)    whistle  at  this  crossing,   I   suppose. 

When  the  log  is  nearly  severed,  it  (shall,  will)  begin  to 
pinch  the  saw.  The  weather  (shall,  will)  be  warmer  to- 
morrow. 

3.  Johnny,  you  (shall,  will)  not  go  near  those  strawberries!     He 

(shall,  will)  not  leave  us  in  this  predicament.  I  repeat  it, 
he  (shall,  will)  not!  We  (shall,  will)  never  sell  this  good 
old  horse. 

4.  (Shall,   will)    this  calico    fade?     (Shall,   will)    you  give   the 

organ  grinder  some  money?  (Shall,  will)  I  raise  the  win- 
dow?    (Should,  would)    I  ask  his  permission? 

5.  If   you    (should,    would)    visit    his    laboratory,    you    (should, 

would)  learn  how  a  starfish  preserved  in  alcohol  smells. 
You  (shall,  will)  all  die  some  day,  my  friends.  (Shall, 
will)  I  ever  forget  this?     Time  (shall,  will)  tell. 

Principal  Parts 

54.   Use  the  correct  form  of  the  past  tense  and  past  parti- 
ciple.    Avoid   come,   done,   bursted,   knotved,   says   for 
the  past  tense;  and  [had]  eat,  [had]  froze,  [have]  ran, 
[has]  went,  [has]  wrote  for  the  past  participle.     Mem- 
orize the  principal  parts  of  difficult  verbs.     The  prin- 

97 


54 


.  GRAMMAR  — TRINCIPAL  TARTS 

cipal  parts  are  the  present  tense,  the  past  tense,  and  the 
past  participle.  A  good  way  to  recall  these  is  to  re- 
peat the  formula:  Today  1  sing;  yesterday  1  sang; 
often  in  the  past  1  have  sung.  The  principal  parts  of 
sing  are  sing,  sang,  sung.  A  list  of  difficult  verbs  is 
given  below. 


bear 

bore 

borne 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

born 

fight 

fought 

fought 

begin 

began 

begun 

flee 

fled 

fled 

bend 

bent 

bent 

fly 

flew 

flown 

bid 

bid 

bid 

flow 

flowed 

flowed 

bade 

bidden 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

bite 

bit 

bit 

get 

got 

got 

aitten 

go 

went 

gone 

bleed 

bled 

bled 

grow 

grew 

grown 

blow 

blew 

blown 

hang 

hung 

hung 

break 

broke 

broken 

hang 

hanged 

hanged 

burn 

burnt 

burnt 

hold 

held 

held 

burned 

burned 

kneel 

knelt 

knelt 

burst 

burst 

burst 

know 

knew 

known 

catch 

caught 

caught 

lay 

laid 

laid 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

lead 

led 

led 

come 

came 

come 

lend 

lent 

lent 

deal 

dealt 

dealt 

lie 

lay 

lain 

dive 

dived 

dived 

lie 

lied 

lied 

do 

did 

done 

loose 

loosed 

loosed 

drag 

dragged 

dragged 

lose 

lost 

lost 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

mean 

meant 

meant 

dream 

dreamt 

dreamt 

pay 

paid 

paid 

dreamed 

dreamed 

prove 

proved 

proved 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

read 

read 

read 

drive 

drove 

driven 

rid 

rid 

rid 

drown 

drowned 

drowned 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

dwell 

dwelt 

dwelt 

ring 

rang 

rung 

dwelled 

dwelled 

rise 

rose 

risen 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

run 

ran 

run 

98 


54 


GRAMMAR - 

say 

said 

said 

see 

saw 

seen 

set 

set 

set 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

shine 

shone 

shone 

show 

showed 

shown 

shrink 

shrank 

shrunk 

sing 

sang 

sung 

sit    ■ 

sat' 

sat 

sHnk 

slunk 

slunk 

speak 

spoke 

^poken 

spend 

spent 

spent 

spit 

spit 

spit 

spat 

spat 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS 


swear 

swore 

sworn 

sweep 

swept 

swept 

swim 

swam 

swum 

take 

took 

taken 

tear 

tore 

torn 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

thrust 

thrust 

thrust 

tread 

trod 

trod 
trodden 

wake 

woke 
waked 

waked 

wear 

wore 

worn 

weave 

wove 

woven 

weep 

wept 

wept 

write 

wrote 

written 

Exercise : 

1.  Adams   (past   tense   of    draw')    another   glass   of   cider 

and  (past  tense  of  drink)    it.     When  those  squashes 

once  (past  tense  of  begin),  they  (past  tense  of 

grow)  like  mad. 

2.  The  thermometer  had  (past  participle  of  fall)   twenty 

degrees,   and  three   water   pipes  had  (past   participle 

of  freeze).     .A.fterward  one  (past  tense  of  burst). 

3.  Annie    had    (past    participle    of    speak)    a    piece,    and 

Nancy   had  (past   participle   of   ivrite)    a   poem,   and 

Isabel  had  nearly  (past  participle  of  burst)  with  envy. 

4.  He (past  tense  oi  do)  a  brave  deed;  he  (past  tense 

of  sivim)  straight  for  the  whirlpool.     I  had (past  parti- 
ciple of  knozv)   him  before,  and  had  (past  participle 

of  shake)  hands  with  him. 

5.  He  (past  tense  of  come)  home  late,  and  has  (past 

participle  of  eat)  his  dinner.     Now  he  has  (past  parti- 
ciple of  go)    down  town.     He  has  —   (past  participle  of 

ride)    before.     I   (past  tense  of  see)    him.     He  

(past  tense  of  run)  swiftly. 


99 


55 


GRAMMAR  — TENSE,  MODE,  AUXILIARIES 


Tense,  Mode,  Auxiliaries 

55a.  In  dependent  clauses  and  infinitives,  the  tense  is  to  be 
considered  in  relation  to  the  time  expressed  in  the 
principal  verb. 

Wrong:  I  intended  to  have  gone.  [The  principal  verb  intended 
indicates  a  past  time.  In  that  past  time  I  intended  to  do  some- 
thing.   What?    Did  I  intend  to  go,  or  to  have  gone t] 

Right :     I  intended  to  go. 

Wrong:  We  hoped  that  you  would  have  come  to  the  party. 
[The  principal  verb  hoped  indicates  a  past  time.  In  that  past 
time  our  hope  was  that  you  would  come,  not  that  you  zt'ould 
haze  come.] 

Right :     We  hoped  that  you  would  come. 

b.  When  narration  in  the  past  tense  is  interrupted  for 
reference  to  a  preceding  occurrence,  the  past  perfect 
tense  is  used. 

Wrong:     In  the  parlor  my  cousin  kept  a  collection  of  animals 

which  he  shot. 
Right;     In  the  parlor  my  cousin  kept  a  collection  of   animals 

which  he  had  shot. 

C.  General  statements  equally  true  in  the  past  and  in  the 
present  are  usually  expressed  in  the  present  tense. 

Faulty:     He  said  that  Venus  was  a  planet. 
Right :     He  said  that  Venus  is  a  planet. 

d.  The  subjunctive  mode  of  the  verb  to  be  is  used  to  ex- 
press a  condition  contrary  to  fact,  or  a  wish. 

Faulty:  If  he  was  here,  I  should  be  happy. 

Right:  If  he  were  here,  I  should  be  happy. 

Faulty:  I  wish  that  I  was  a  man. 

Right :  I  wish  that  I  were  a  man. 

100 


56 


GRAMMAR  — ADJECTIVE  AND  ADVERB 

e.  Use  the  correct  auxiliary.  Make  sure  that  the  tense, 
mode,  or  aspect  of  successive  verbs  is  not  altered  with- 
out reason. 

Wrong:  By  giving  strict  obedience  to  commands,  a  soldier 
learns  discipline,  and  consequently  would  have  steady  nerves 
in  time  of  war.     [Learns  should  be  followed  by  will  have.] 

Wj-ong:  Ap.  automobile  should  be  kept  in  good  working  order 
so  that  its  life  is  lengthened.     [Should  be  is  properly  followed 

by  may  be.] 

»■ 
Exercise : 

1.  Every  one  hoped  that  you  would  have  spoken. 

2.  I  saw  it  in  the  window.     It  was  the  very  book  I  wanted  so 

long. 

3.  If  I  was  sick,  I  should  go  home. 

4.  They  expected  to  have  won  the  game. 

5.  The  Masons  never  invite  men  to  join  their  lodge,  but  if  a 

person  expresses  a  desire  to  join,  his  friends  would  prob- 
ably be  able  to  secure  membership  for  him. 

Adjective  and  Adverb 

la.    Do  not  use  an  adjective  to  modify  a  verb. 

Crude :  He  spoke  slow  and  careful. 

Right:  He  spoke  slowly  and  carefully. 

Crude:  He  sure  did  good  in  his  classes. 

Right:  He  surely  did  well  in  his  classes. 

b.  In  such  sentences  as  He  stood  firm  and  The  cry  rang 
clear  the  modifier  should  be  an  adjective  if  it  refers  to 
the  subject,  an  adverb  if  it  refers  to  the  verb. 

Right:     The    sun    shines    bright    on    my    old    Kentucky    home. 

[Here  the  thought  is  that  the  sun  which  shines  is  bright.] 
Right:     He  worked  diligently.     [Here  the  modifier  refers  to  the 

manner   of   working   rather  than   to   the   person   who  works. 

It  should  therefore  be  an  adverb.] 


57 

GRAMMAR  — DOUBLE  CAPACITY 

Right:  It  stood  immovable.  The  shot  rang  loud.  He  becomes 
angry.  The  weeds  grow  thick.  They  remain  obstinate.  He 
seems  intelligent. 

C.  After  a  verb  pertaining  to  the  senses,  look,  sound,  taste, 
smell,  feel,  an  adjective  is  used  to  denote  a  quality 
pertaining  to  the  subject.  (An  adverb  is  used  only 
when  the  reference  is  clearly  to  the  verb.) 

She  looks  beautiful.     [Not  beautifully.] 
The  dinner  bell  sounds  good.     [Not  u'elL] 
My  food  tastes  bad.     [Not  badly.] 
That  flower  smells  bad.     [Not  badly.] 
I  feel  good  [in  good  spirits.] 

I  feel  well  [in  good  health.     An  adjectival  use  of  well.] 
I  feel  bad  [in  bad  health  or  spirits.    "I  feel  badly"  would  mean 
"  My  sense  of  touch  is  impaired."] 

Exercise : 

1.  They  fought  (heroic,  heroically).     Dave  stumbled  

(awkward,  awkwardly). 

2.  Margaret  (sure,  surely)    worked  (faithful,   faith- 

fully) in  economics. 

3.  At  this  reply  the  teacher  grew  (wrathful,  wrathfully). 

I  hear  you (plain,  plainly). 

4.  I  feel  (giddy,  giddily).     Your  rose  looks  (sweet, 

sweetly).     No  perfume  smells  so  (dainty,  daintily). 

5.  That  salad  tastes (good,  well).     I  feel (bad,  badly) 

today.     Your    voice    sounds    (good,    well)    and    

(familiar,   familiarly). 

A  Word  in  a  Double  Capacity 

57.  Do  not  use  a  verb,  conjunction,  preposition,  or  noun 
in  a  double  capacity  when  one  of  the  uses  is  ungram- 
matical. 

Wrong  [verb]  :  An  opera  house  was  built  in  p.ne  part  of  town, 
and  two  churches  in  another. 


58 


THE  TERMS  OF  GRAMMAR 

Right :     An   opera  house   was  built   in   one  part  of   town,   and 

two  churches  were  built  in  another. 
Wrong  [verb]  :     He  always  has  and  will  do  it. 
Right:     He  always  has  done  it,  and  always  will  do  it. 
Wrong  [conjunction]  :     He  was  as  old,  if  not  older,  than  any 

other  man  in  the  community. 
Right:     He  was  as  old  as  any  other  man  in  the  community,  if 

jiot  older. 
Wrong  [preposition]  :     He  was  fond  and  diligent  in  work. 
Right:     He  was  fond  of  work  and  diligent  in  it. 
Wrong  [noun]  :    fie  is  one  of  the  most  skilful,  if  not  the  most 

skilful,  tennis  players  in  the  state. 
Right :     He  is  one  of  the  most  skilful  tennis  players  in  the  state, 

if  not  the  most  skilful. 

Exercise : 

1.  He  is  as  old,  if  not  older,  than  she  is. 

2.  Two  boats  were  in  the  water,  and  one  on  the  shore. 

3.  From  childhood  he  has,  and  to  old  age  he  will,  have  many 

hobbies. 

4.  A  visit  to  a  ten  cent  store  is  better,  or  at  least  as  good,  as  a 

visit  to  a  circus.  You  see  as  many  or  more  queer  things 
than  in  any  show. 

5.  One  of  the  greatest,  if  not  the  greatest,  secrets  in  keeping  our 

health,  is  to  keep  our  teeth  in  good  condition.  A  famous 
physician  said  that  one  of  the  next,  if  not  the  very  next, 
marked  advance  in  medical  science  will  be  through  discov- 
eries in  the  realm  of  dentistry. 

58.      Parts  of  Speech,  Other  Grammatical  Terms, 

Conjugation 

The  Parts  of  Speech  and  Their  Uses 

Noun.  A  noun  is  a  name.  It  may  be  proper  (Phili()  IVatkim), 
or  common.  Common  nouns  may  be  concrete  (man.  zvind- 
mill),  or  abstract  (gratitude,  nearness).  A  noun  applied  to 
a  group  is  said  to  be  collective  (family,  race).    The  uses  of 

10% 


58 


THE  TERMS  OF  GRAMMAR 

a  noun  are:  to  serve  as  the  subject  of  a  verb,  to  serve  as  the 
object  of  a  verb  or  a  preposition,  to  be  in  apposition  with  an- 
other noun  (Jenkins,  our  coach),  to  indicate  possession 
(Josclyh's  coat  of  many  colors)  ;  and  less  frequently,  to  serve 
as  an  adjective  (the  brick  sidewalk;  or  adverb  (John  went 
home),  and  to  indicate  direct  address  {Jehovah,  help  us!). 

Pronoun.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  which  takes  the  place  of  a 
noun.  It  may  be  personal  (/,  thou,  you,  he,  she,  it,  xce, 
they),  relative  (ivho,  which,  zvhat,  that,  as,  and  compounds 
whoever,  zvliiclisocver,  etc.),  interrogative  iivho,  which, 
what),  demonstrative  {this,  that,  these,  those),  or  indefinite 
{some,  any,  one,  each,  either,  neither,  none,  fezv,  all,  both, 
etc.).  Strictly  speaking,  the  last  two  groups,  demonstratives 
and  indefinites,  are  adjectives  used  as  pronouns.  Certain  pro- 
nouns are  also  used  as  adjectives,  notably  the  possessives 
{my,  his,  their,  etc.)  and  the  relative  or  interrogative  which 
and  2vhat.  The  addition  of  -self  to  a  personal  pronoun  forms 
a  reflexive  pronoun  or  intensive  (I  blamed  myself.  You 
yourself  are  at  fault).  A  noun  for  which  the  pronoun  stands 
is  called  the  antecedent.  The  uses  of  pronouns  are  in  general 
the  same  as  those  of  nouns.  In  addition,  relatives  serve  as 
connectives  (the  man  who  spoke),  interrogatives  ask  questions 
{zvhat  man?),  and  demonstratives  point  out  (that  man). 

Verb.  A  verb  is  a  word  or  word-group  which  makes  an  asser- 
tion about  the  subject.  It  may  express  either  action  or  mere 
existence.  It  may  be  transitive  {trans  meaning  "across"; 
hence  action  carried  across,  requiring  a  receiver  of  the  act : 
Brutus  stabbed  Caesar;  Csesar  is  stabbed)  or  intransitive  (not 
requiring  a  receiver  of  the  act:  Montgomery  fell).  Its  mean- 
ing is  dependent  upon  its  voice,  mode,  and  tense.  Voice  shows 
the  relationship  between  the  subject  and  the  assertion  made 
by  the  verb.  The  active  voice  shows  the  subject  as  actor 
(They  elected  Washington)  ;  the  passive  voice,  as  acted  upon 
(Washington  zvas  elected).  (A  transitive  verb  may  be  active 
or  passive,  but  an  intransitive  verb  has  no  voice.)  Mode  in- 
dicates the  manner  of  predicating  an  action,  whether  as 
assertion,   condition,   command,   etc.     There   are  three   modes 

104 


THE  TERMS  OF  GRAMMAR 

in  English.  The  indicative  mode  affirms  or  denies  (He  went. 
She  did  not  dance).  The  subjunctive  expresses  condition  or 
wish  (If  he  were  older,  he  would  be  wiser.  Would  that  I 
were  there!).  The  imperative  expresses  command  or  exhor- 
tation {Remain  there.  Go!  Let  us  pray).  Modal  auxil- 
iaries with  these  three  modes  form  modal  aspects  of  the 
verb.  There  are  as  many  different  aspects  as  there  are 
auxiliaries.  Aspects  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  separate 
modes  or  called  collectively  the  "  potential  mode."  Tense  ex- 
presses the  time  of  the  action  or  existence.  The  tenses  are 
the  present,  th»  past,  the  future  (employing  the  auxiliaries 
shall  and  iiw//),  the  perfect  (employing  have),  the  past  per- 
fect (employing  had),  and  the  future  perfect  (employing 
shall  have  and  z<.>ill  have).  Verbals  are  certain  forms  of  the 
verb  used  as  other  parts  of  speech  (noun,  adjective,  adverb). 
For  the  verbal  forms,  infinitive,  gerund,  and  participle,  see  the 
separate  headings. 
Adjective.  An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  noun  or 
pronoun.  An  adjective  may  be  attributive  {bright  sun,  cool- 
headed  adventurers)  or  predicate  (The  field  is  broad.  The 
meat  tastes  bad.  I  want  this  ready  by  Christmas).  Adjec- 
tives assume  three  forms  known  as  degrees  of  comparison. 
The  positive  degree  indicates  the  simple  quality  of  the  object 
without  reference  to  any  other.  The  comparative  degree 
indicates  that  two  objects  are  compared  (Stanley  is  the  older 
brother).  The  superlative  degree  indicates  that  three  or 
more  objects  are  compared  (Stanley  is  the  oldest  child  in  the 
family)  or  that  the  speaker  feels  great  interest  or  emotion 
(A  most  excellent  record).  Ordinarily  er  or  r  is  added  to  the 
positive  to  form  the  comparative,  and  est  or  st  to  the  positive 
to  form  the  superlative  (brave,  braver,  bravest).  But  some 
adjectives  (sometimes  those  of  two,  and  always  those  of  more 
than  two,  syllables)  prefix  more  (or  less)  to  the  positive  to 
form  the  comparative,  and  most  (or  least)  to  the  positive  to 
form  the  superlative  (beautiful,  more  beautiful,  most  beauti- 
ful). Some  adjectives  express  qualities  that  do  not  permit 
comparison   (dead,  four-sided,  unique). 

105 


58 


58 


THE  TERMS  OF  GRAMMAR 

Adverb.  An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  verb,  an  adjec- 
tive, another  adverb  (She  played  well;  unusuaUy  handsome; 
very  sternly),  or,  more  rarely,  a  verbal  noun  (Walking  jast 
is  good  for  the  health)  or  a  preposition  (The  ship  drifted 
almost  upon  the  breakers).  Certain  adverbs  {fatally,  entirely) 
do  not  logically  admit  of  comparison.  Those  that  do  are 
compared  like  adjectives  of  more  than  two  syllables  (slowly, 
more  or  less  slowly,  most  or  least  slozvly). 

Preposition.  A  preposition  is  a  connective  placed  before  a 
substantive  (called  its  object)  in  order  to  subordinate  the 
substantive  to  some  other  word  in  a  sentence  (The  boast  of 
heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power.  He  ran  toward  the  enemy 
ivithout  fear). 

Conjunction.  A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  join  together 
words,  phrases,  clauses,  or  sentences.  A  coordinate  conjunc- 
tion connects  elements  of  equal  rank  (See  36).  Correlative 
conjunctions  are  conjunctions  used  in  pairs  (See  31).  A 
subordinate  conjunction  is  one  that  connects  elements  un- 
equal in  rank  (See  36).  When  a  conjunction,  in  addition  to 
its  function  as  a  connective,  indicates  a  relation  of  time,  place, 
or  cause,  it  is  often  called  a  conjunctive  adverb  or  relative 
adverb. 

Interjection.  An  interjection  is  a  word  thrown  into  speech 
to  express  emotion.  It  has  no  grammatical  connection  with 
other  words.     {Oh,  is  that  it?     Well,  I'll  do  it.     Hark!) 

Other  Grammatical  Terms 

Absolute  expression.  An  expression  (usually  composed  of  a 
substantive  and  a  participle,  perhaps  with  modifiers)  which, 
though  not  formally  and  grammatically  joined,  is  in  thought 
related  to  the  remainder  of  the  sentence.  {The  relief  party 
having  arrived,  we  went  home.  This  disposed  of,  the  coun- 
cil proceeded  to  other  matters.  Defeated,  he  was  not  dis- 
mayed. ) 

Antecedent.  A  substantive  to  which  a  pronoun  or  participle 
refers.     Literally,  antecedent  means   that  zvhich  goes  before; 

106 


58 


THE  TERMS  OF  GRAMMAR 

but  sometimes  the  antecedent  follows  the  dependent  word. 
(The  man  who  hesitates  is  lost.  Entering  the  store,  we  saw 
a  barrel  of  apples.)  Man  is  the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun 
who,  and  we  is  the  antecedent  of  the  participle  entering. 

Auxiliary.  Be,  have,  do,  shall,  will,  ought,  may,  can,  must, 
might,  could,  would,  should,  etc.,  when  used  with  participles 
and  infinitives  of  other  verbs,  are  called  auxiliary  verbs. 

Case.  The  relation  of  a  substantive  to  other  words  in  the  sen- 
tence as  shown  by  inflectional  form  or  position.  The  sub- 
ject of  a  verb,  or  the  predicate  of  the  verb  to  be,  is  in  the 
nominative  case?  The  object  of  a  verb  or  preposition,  or  the 
"assumed  subject"  of  an  infinitive,  is  in  the  objective  case. 
A  noun  or  pronoun  which  denotes  possession  is  in  the  pos- 
sessive case. 

Clause.  A  portion  of  a  sentence  which  contains  a  subject  and 
a  verb,  perhaps  with  modifiers.  The  following  sentence  con- 
tains one  dependent  (subordinate)  and  one  independent  (prin- 
cipal) clause:     When  the  storm  ceased,  the  grove  was  a  ruin. 

Conjugation.  The  inflectional  changes  in  the  verb  to  indicate 
person,  number,  tense,  voice,  mode,  and  modal  aspect. 

Declension.  The  changes  in  a  noun,  pronoun,  or  adjective  to 
indicate  person,  number,  or  case. 

Ellipsis,  elliptical  expression.  An  expression  partially  incom- 
plete, so  that  words  have  to  be  understood  to  complete  the 
meaning.  An  idea  or  relation  corresponding  to  the  omitted 
words  is  present,  at  least  vaguely,  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker. 
Elliptical  sentences  are  usually  justifiable  except  when  the 
reader  cannot  instantly  supply  the  understood  words.  Ex- 
amples of  proper  ellipses:  You  are  as  tall  as  I  [am  tall]. 
Is  your  sister  coming?  I  think  [my  sister  is]  not  [coming]. 
I  will  go  if  you  will  [go].  [I  give  you]  Thanks  for  your  ad- 
vice. 

Gerund.  A  verbal  in  -ing  used  as  a  noun.  (T  do  not  object  to 
your  telling.  His  having  deserted  us  makes  little  difference.) 
The  gerund  may  be  regarded  as  a  special  form  of  the  infini- 
tive. 

Infinitive.     A    verbal    ordinarily    introduced    by    to    and    used 


58 


THE  TERMS  OF  GRAMMAR 

as  a  noun  {To  err  is  human).  In  such  sentences  as  "The 
road  to  follow  is  the  river  road,"  folloiv  may  be  regarded  as 
the  noun  of  a  phrase  (compare  the  road  to  Mandalay),  or  the 
entire  phrase  may  be  regarded  as  an  adjective.  Similarly,  in 
"  He  hastened  to  comply,"  comply  may  be  regarded  as  a  noun 
or  to  comply  as  an  adverb.  After  certain  verbs  {bid,  dare, 
help,  make,  need,  etc.)  the  to  is  omitted  from  the  iniinitive 
group.     (He  bids  me  go.     I  need  not  hesitate.) 

Inflection.  Change  in  the  form  of  a  v\ord  to  show  a  modifi- 
cation or  shade  of  meaning.  At  a  very  early  period  in  our 
language  there  was  a  separate  form  for  practically  every 
modification.  .Mthough  separate  forms  are  now  less  numerous, 
inilection  is  still  a  convenient  term  in  grammar.  Its  scope 
is  general :  it  includes  the  declension  of  nouns,  the  compari- 
son of  adjectives  and  adverbs,  and  the  conjugation  of  verbs. 

Modify.  To  be  grammatically  dependent  upon  and  to  limit  or 
alter  the  quality  of.  In  the  expression  "  The  very  old  man," 
the  and  old  modify  man,  and  very  modifies  old. 

Participle.  A  verbal  used  as  an  adjective,  or  as  an  adjective 
with  adverbial  qualities.  In  the  sentence  "  Mary,  being  oldest, 
is  also  the  best  liked,"  beincj  oldest  refers  e.xclusively,  or 
almost  exclusively,  to  the  subject  and  is  therefore  adjectival. 
In  such  sentences  as  '"  He  fell  back,  exhausted "  and  "  Run- 
ning down  the  street,  I  collided  with  a  baby  carriage,"  the 
participle  refers  in  part  to  the  verb  and  is  therefore  adverbial 
as  well  as  adjectival. 

Phrase.  A  group  of  words  forming  a  subordinate  part  of  a 
sentence  and  not  containing  a  subject  and  its  verb.  Examples: 
With  a  zi'histle  and  a  roar  the  train  arrived  [prepositional 
phrase].  Boiving  his  head,  the  prisoner  listened  to  the  ver- 
dict of  the  jury  [participial  phrase].  In  a  loose,  untechnical 
sense  phrase  may  refer  to  any  short  group  of  words,  even  if 
the  group  includes  a  subject  and  its  verb. 

Predicate.  The  word  or  word-group  in  a  sentence  which  makes 
an  assertion  about  the  subject.  It  consists  of  a  finite  verb 
with  or  without  objects  or  modifiers. 

Predicate    adjective.     An    adjective    in    the    predicate,    usually 

1 08 


58 


THE  TERMS  OF  GRAMMAR 

linked  with  the  subject  by  some  form  of  the  verb  to  be  (is, 
was,  zvere,  etc.).  (John  is  /a~3^  The  soldiers  were  very 
eager. ) 

Predicate  noun.  A  noun  linked  with  the  subject  by  some  form 
of  the  verb  to  be.  (John  is  halfback.  They  were  our  neigh- 
bors.) 

Sentence.  A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  containing  (i)  a 
subject  (>yith  or  without  modifiers)  and  a  predicate  (with  or 
without  modifiers)  and  not  grammatically  dependent  on  any 
words  outside  of  itself;  or  (2)  two  or  more  such  expres- 
sions related  in  •thought.  Sentences  of  type  i  are  snnple  or 
complex  ;  sentences  of  type  2  are  compound.  A  simple  sen- 
tence contains  one  independent  clause  (The  dog  barks  an- 
grily). A  complex  sentence  contams  one  nidcpendent  clause 
and  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses  (The  dog  barks  when  the 
thief  appears).  A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more 
independent  clauses    (The  dog  barks,  and  the  thief  runs). 

Substantive.  A  noun  or  a  word  standing  in  place  of  a  noun. 
(The  king  summoned  parhainent.  The  bravest  are  the  ten- 
derest.  She  was  inconsolable.)  A  substantive  phrase  is  a 
phrase  used  as  a  noun.  (From  Dan  to  Bcersheba  is  a  term 
for  the  whole  of  Israel.)  A  substantive  clause  is  a  clause 
used  as  a  noun.     (That  he  oivcd  the  money  is  certain.) 

Syntax.  Construction ;  the  grammatical  relation  between  the 
words,  phrases,  and  clauses  in  a  sentence. 

Verbal.  Any  form  of  the  verb  used  as  another  part  of  speech. 
Infinitives,  gerunds,  and  participles  are  verbals.  They  are 
used  to  express  action  without  asserting  it,  and  cannot,  there- 
fore, have  subjects  or  be  used  as  predicate  verbs. 

Abridged  Conjugation  of  the  verb   to  take 
Indicative  Mode 


Tense 

Active  Voice 

Passive  Voice 

Present 

I  take 

I  am  taken 

Past 

I  took 

109 

I  was  taken 

58 


THE  TERMS  OF  GRAMMAR 


Tense 

Active  Voice 

Passive  Voice 

Future 

I  shall   (will)   take 

I  shall    (will)    be 
taken 

Perfect 

I  have  taken 

I  have  been  taken 

Past  Perfect 

1  had  taken 

I  had  been  taken 

Future  Perfect 

1  shall   (will)   have 

I  shall   (will)   have 

taken 

been  taken 

Subjunctive  Mode 

Present 

If  I  take 

If  I  be  taken 

Past 

If  I  took 

It   I  were  taken 

Perfect 

If  I  have  taken 

If  I  have  been  taken 

Past  Perfect 

If  I  had  taken 
Imperative  Mode 

If  I  had  been  taken 

Present 

Take 

Modal  Aspects 

(Modal  aspects,  formed  by  combining  auxiliaries  with  the  main 
verb,  give  special  meanings  —  emphatic,  progressive,  etc. —  to  the 
primary  modes.  Since  there  are  almost  as  many  aspects  as  there 
are  auxiliaries,  only  a  few  can  be  enumerated  here.) 


Active  Voice 

Passive  Voice 

Emphatic: 

1  do  take 

Progressive: 

I  am  taking 

I  am  being  taken 

Present 

Contingent: 

I  may  take 

I  may  be  taken 

Indicative 

Potential: 

I  can  take 

I  can  be  taken 

Obligative: 

I  must  take 

I  must  be  taken 

Etc. 

• 

Emphatic: 

I  did  take 

Progressive: 

I  was  taking 

I  was  being  taken 

Past 

Contingent: 

I  might  take 

I  might  be  taken 

Indicative 

Potential: 

I  could  take 

I  could  be  taken 

Obligative: 

I  must  take 

I  must  be  taken 

Etc. 

58 


THE  TERMS  OF  GRAMMAR 


Tense 


Present 
Subjunctive 


Emphatic: 
Progressive: 
Contingent: 
Potential: 
Obligative: 
Etc. 


Active  Voice 

If  I  do  take 

If  I  be  taking 

If  I  might  take 

If  I  could  take 

If  I  must  take 


Present  [Emphatic:  Do  take 

Imperative    [Progressive:      Be  taking 

Verbals 

Infinitive 
Active  Voice 
Present:  To  take 
Perfect:  To  have  taken 


Present:  Taking 
Perfect:  Having  taken 


Present:  Taking 

Past: 

Perfect:  Having  taken 


Gerund 


Participle 


Passive  Voice 

To  be  taken 

To  have  been  taken 


Being  taken 
Having  been  taken 


Being  taken 

Taken 

Having  been  taken 


Exercise : 
Copy  a  page  of  good  prose  from  any  book,  leaving  wide  spaces 
between  the  lines.     Indicate  the  part  of  speech  of  every  word. 
This  may  be  done  by  abbreviations   placed  beneath   the  words. 
For  example : 


"Von 

Arden,         ha 

ving  fallen 

into 

a         very         unquiet 

m 

un 

part. 

prep. 

art.            adv.                     aiij- 

slumber,      dreamed 

that      he 

was 

an      aged      man      who 

noun 

verb 

ttnj,    pen   pro. 

verb 

art.           ad).            tttun          rel-  prt 

Stood 

beside       a 

window." 

vtrb 

trtp.            art. 

noun 

III 

59 


GRAMMAR 


59.  EXERCISE  IN  GRAMMAR 

A.     Case  of  Pronouns 

Determine  the  correct  form  of  the  pronoun. 

1.  It  is   (I,  nie). 

2.  No  one  knows  better  than  (she,  her). 

3.  Then  came  the  whistle  for  Gerald  and  (I,  me). 

4.  It  was  (they,  them). 

5.  Alice  can  drive  a  car  as  well  as  (he,  him). 

6.  It  was  (she,  her)    (who.  whom)  you  saw  on  the  car. 

7.  John,  you  may  go  with  Dan  and   (I,  me). 

8.  If  I  were  (she,  her),  I  could  not  think  of  accepting  the  ques- 

tionable honor. 

9.  One  evening  four  of  (we,  us)  girls  decided  to  go  to  the  theater. 

10.  Others  are  older  than  (we,  us). 

11.  (Who.  Whom)   do  you  imagine  will  be  our  next  president? 

12.  He  does  not  approve  of  (our,  us)  walking  on  the  grass. 

13.  Surely  you  will  not  question  (it,  its)  being  (he,  him). 

14.  That  seems  strange  to  you  and  (I,  me). 

15.  Her  mother  has  more  regular  features  than   (she,  her"). 

16.  Women    (who,  whom)    some  people  would  call   "quiet"   are 

often  the  wisest. 

17.  Between  you  and  (I,  me").  I'm  hungry. 

18.  The  thought  of   (it,  its)   coming  by  parcel  post  never  entered 

my  mind. 

ig.  He  never  discovered   (who.  whom)  his  enemy  was. 

20.  In  case  of  a  fumble,  the  ball  is  given  to    (whoever,  whom- 
ever)  recovers  it. 

B.     Agreement 

Determine  the  correct  form  of  the  verb. 

1.  He  (don't,  doesn't)  care  for  music. 

2.  The  swimming,  boating,  and  fishing  (is,  are)   good. 

3.  Each  one  of  the  two  hands  of  the  clock  (is,  are)  made  of  gold. 


59 


GRAMMAR 

4.  The   ore   is   sorted   and   the  cars  having  good  ore    (is,   are) 

hauled  to  the  smeUer. 

5.  A  deck  of  ordinary  playing  cards  consisting  of  fifty-two  cards 

(is,  are)   used. 

6.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  only  one  out  of  every  ten  of  the  great 

number  of  students  (realizes,  realize)  the  value  of  economy. 

7.  In  spite  of  all  obstacles,  the  construction  of  the  three  hundred 

.trestles  and  the  twenty  scaffolds   (was,  were)  completed. 

8.  Some  nights  may  seem  still,  yet  there  (is,  are)   always  noises. 

9.  The  exact  meaning  of  such  words  as  inspiration,  prophecy,  and 

orthodox  (puzzies,  puzzle)  la3^men. 

10.  Hard  roads  (is,  are)  an  important  matter  to  all  country  people. 

11.  There  (has,  have)  been  many  lives  lost  in  Arctic  exploration. 

12.  Personal  gifts  inspired  by  good  will  and  directed  by  careful 

thought  (is,  are)  the  very  best  kind  of  charity. 

13.  In  Lincoln's  replies  to  Douglas  there    (is,  are)    no  flights  of 

oratory. 

14.  The  conciseness  of  these  lines  (is,  are)  to  be  admired. 

15.  A  constant  stream  of  wagons  and  horses  (was,  were)   passing 

as  the  circus  was  unloaded. 

16.  Nevertheless  there    (exists,  exist)    a  certain  class  of  students 

who  are  socially  submerged. 

17.  She  (doesn't,  don't)  care  for  olives. 

18.  "Current  Events"   (is,  are)   a  very  useful  department  of  this 

magazine. 

19.  No  people  (lives,  live)  in  that  house. 

20.  The  corporal,  together  with  two  other  members  of  the  patrol, 

(was,  were)  captured  by  the  enemy. 

C     Shall  and    Will,  Should  and   Would 

Determine  the  correct  form  of  the  verb. 

1.  Perhaps  I  (shall,  will)  be  able  to  go. 

2.  I  tell  you.  T  (shall,  will)  not  allow  that  dog  in  the  car. 

3.  It  is  odd  what  a  person   (shall,  will)   do  in  a  time  of  excite- 

ment. 

us 


59 


GRAMMAR 

4.  They  have  never  seen  anything  like  it,  and  probably  they  never 

(shall,  willj. 

5.  "Johnny,  you    (shall,  will)   not  go!"     Johnny  knew  that  fur- 

ther begging  was  useless. 

6.  As    we    (shall,   will)    hnd   by   investigation,   our   coast    fortifi- 

cations are  few. 

7.  I  (shouldn't,  wouldn't)  do  that  for  anything. 

8.  I    (should,    wouldj    ihnik    you     (should,    would)    enjoy    your 

bicycle. 

9.  (Shall,  will;  you  go  driving  with  us? 

10.  Do  you  think  it  (shall,  will)  rain? 

11.  Where  (shall,  willj   1  hang  my  hat? 

12.  (Should,  would)   you  go  if  I   (should,  would)   ask  you? 

13.  Rover   (should,  would)    stay  in  the  house  all  the  time,  if  we 

(should,  would)   let  him. 

14.  I   promised    that   I    (should,   would)    be   at   the   station   early, 

lest  we  (should,  would)  miss  tlie  train. 

15.  You  (shall,  will)  have  much  trouble  with  that  cold,  I'm  afraid. 

D.     Lie,  lay;  sit,  set;  rise,  raise 

Fix  in  mind  the  following  principal  parts: 

I  have  lain 

I  have  laid 

1  have  sat 

I  have  set 

I  have  risen 

I  have  raised 

Lie,  sit,  rise  are  used  intransitively;  lay,  set,  raise  are  used  tran- 
sitively. Lay,  set,  raise  are  causatives;  that  is,  to  lay  means  to 
cause  to  lie,  etc. 

Insert  a  correct  form  of  the  verb  lie  or  lay: 

I.  1 here  and  watch  the  clouds.     My  dog  is  ing  at  my 

feet. 

114 


I  lie 

I  lay 

I  lay 

I  laid 

1  sit 

I  sat 

I  set 

I  set 

I  rise 

I  rose 

I  raise 

I  raised 

59 


GRAMMAR 

2.  In  the  evening  I  aside  all  cares.     I  down  on  the 

couch  and  read.     Yesterday  1  there  an  hour. 

3.  The  children  have  ni  bed  until  seven  o'clock.     John  has 

his  coat  on  a  chair.     He  there  asleep  now. 

4-  the  shovel  down.     The  garden  is  now  out  in   rows. 

down  and  take  a  little  rest. 

5.  Smoke along  the  horizon.     Snow  was  ing  here  yester- 

day.    He^is ing  plans  for  the  future. 

Insert  a  correct  form  of  the  verb  sit  or  set: 

6.  Jerome  the  hox  on  the  floor.     Then  he  on  the  box. 

7.  Four   people   are  ing   at   the   table.     Who   the   lamp 

there?" 

8.  I  had  there  an  hour.     They  had  the  pitcher  outside 

the  door. 

9.  I  often  up  late.     Last  night  I  up  late.     I  must  

the  alarm  clock. 

10.  the  package  down.     down  and   rest.     While  we  are 

ing  here  the  gardener  is  ing  out  the  plants. 

Insert  a  correct  form  of  the  verb  rise  or  raise: 

11.  up  and  speak!     the  window. 

12.  He  quickly  his  head.     The  cork  had  gone  under,  but  now 

it again  to  the  surface. 

13.  During  the  night  the  bread  to  the  top  of  the  pan. 

14.  The  invalid  slowly  himself  in  his  bed. 

15.  The  river  has  already  and  overflowed  its  banks. 

E.     Principal  Parts  of  Verbs 

In   the    following  sentences   supply   the   correct    form 
of  the  verb. 

1.  He (past  tense  of  come)  to  this  country  in  188". 

2.  He  has  (past  particii)le  of  eat)   breakfast  and  (past 

participle  of  go)  to  the  office. 

3.  Have  you   (past   participle   of   ride)    far?     I   have  

(past  participle  of  drive)   ten  miles. 
115 


59 


GRAMMAR 

4.  I  am  sure  it  was  Henry  who  (past  tense  of  do)   it,  for 

1  (past  tense  of  sec)   him  runmng  away  as  fast  as  he 

could  go. 

5.  The  wnid  has  (past  participle  of  tear)  down  the  chimney 

and  (past  participle  of  blcn')  down  the  tree. 

6.  After  he  (past  tense  of   lie)    down,  he  remembered  he 

had   left  his  books  (present   participle  of  lie)    in   the 

orchard. 

7.  He  (past  tense  of  throzv)  the  ball  so  hard  that  the  win- 

dow  was  (past   participle   of   break)    into   a   hundred 

pieces. 

8.  The  man  (past  tense  of  gire)   warning  before  we  had 

(past  participle  of  go)  too  far. 

9.  After  we  had  (past  participle  of  ride)   about  ten  miles 

we  (past  tense  of  come)  upon  a  stretch  of  hard  road. 

10.  Where  (past  tense  of  be)  you?     You  n't  (past  tense 

of  be)  at  home  when  I  (past  tense  of  ring)  the  bell. 

11.  The  harness  was  (past  participle  of  break  or  burst)  be- 

yond repair.     Who  (past  tense  of  break)  it? 

12.  I (past  tense  of  take)  four  shots  at  the  rabbit,  but  every 

shot  (past  tense  of  go)   wild 

13.  He  has  (past  participle  of  swim)   across  the  harbor,  and 

has  (past  participle  of  break)   the  record. 

14.  I  had  (past  participle  of  drink)    buttermilk   for  several 

weeks.     I  (past  tense  of  begin)  to  gain  weight. 

15.  When  we  had  (past  participle  of  sit)   there  an  hour  and 

(past  participle  of  cat)   all  we  wanted,  Jim  (past 

tense  of  drazc)  out  his  purse  and  (past  tense  of  give) 

the  waiter  a  dollar. 

F.     General 

Improve  the  grammar  of  the  following  sentences. 

1.  Those  kind  of  lamps  are  ugly. 

2.  It  don't  interest  me  any  more. 

3.  Nobody  may  enter  the  hall  tonight  without  their  admittance 

cards. 

116 


59 

GRAMMAR 

4.  One  does  not  need  to  strain  their  ears  while  at  the  movies. 

5.  Nearly  all  people  cat  too  much,  too  fast,  and  too  irregular. 

6.  Don't  take  this  letter  too  serious. 

7.  He  done  the  best  he  could  with  these  kind  of  tools. 

8.  Every  person  with  a  cold  was  blowing  their  nose. 

9.  It  would  help  considerable  if  you  would   speak  to  the  man- 

ager about  the  existing  conditions. 

10.  If  I  were  the  mayor,  I  could  not  do  as  good  as  he  does. 

11.  Talk  polite  to  your  customers. 

12.  It  is  important  that  a  salesman  has  a  good  memory. 

13.  Each  tube  must  be  capable  of  withstanding  a  pressure  of  five 

hundred   pounds   per   square   inch   before   they   are   lowered 
into  place. 

14.  She  is  as  tall,  if  not  taller,  than  he  is. 

15.  He  always  has  and  always  will  say  that. 

16.  He  is  one  of  the  worst,  if  not  the  very  worst,  player  on  the 

team. 

17.  Final   examinations    require    time    and    study   that    would    not 

otherwise  be  done. 

18.  I  feel  badly.     He  talks  rude.     It  smells  fragrantly. 


117 


60 


DICTION 

Wordiness 

60.   Avoid  wordiness.     Strike  out  words  not  essential  to  the 
thought. 

,  Roundabout  impersonal  construction :  There  are  many  interest- 
ing things  which  may  be  seen  in  New  York.     [12  words.] 

Better :  Many  interesting  things  may  be  seen  in  New  Yorlc. 
[9  words.] 

Clause  to  be  reduced  to  a  phrase :  The  skeleton  which  stood  in 
the  office  of  Dr.  Willard  was  terrifying  to  little  Cecil.  [15 
words.] 

Right:  The  skeleton  in  Dr.  Willard's  office  was  terrifying  to 
little  Cecil.     [11  words.] 

Clause  and  phrase  each  to  be  reduced  to  a  word :  Men  who 
cared  only  for  their  individual  interests  were  now  in  a  state 
of  discouragement.     [15  words.] 

Right:     Selfish  men  were  now  discouraged.     [5  words.] 

Separate  predication  in  excess :  That  day  I  was  shocking  wheat 
behind  the  binder.  Shocking  wheat  behind  the  binder  was  my 
usual  job  in  harvest.  That  day  while  I  was  working  at  this 
job,  I  found  a  nest  full  of  partridge  eggs.     [37  words.] 

Right :  That  day,  while  shocking  wheat  behind  the  binder,  my 
usual  job  in  harvest,  I  found  a  nest  full  of  partridge  eggs. 
[21  words.] 

Ponderous  scientific  terms  for  simple  ideas :  Since,  according 
to  the  physicists,  the  per  cent  of  efficiency  of  a  machine  is 
equal  to  the  amount  of  energy  put  in,  divided  by  the  amount 
of  useful  work  performed,  it  naturally  follows  that  in  all  hu- 
man activities,  unnecessary  friction,  since  it  lowers  the  amount 
of  nervous  energy,  is  going  to  lower  the  per  cent  of  efficiency. 
While  we  may  never  reach  an  astonishing  degree  of  efficiency 
by  economizing  nervous  energy,  nevertheless,  if  we  consist- 
ently and  perseveringly  try  to  spare  ourselves  all  unnecessary 

118 


80 

DICTION  —  WORDINESS 

labor  and  exertion,  we  shall  have  an  abundant  supply  of  energy 
to  direct  into  channels  of  usefulness.     [loo  words.] 

Right:  If  we  economize  our  strength,  we  can  make  our  actions 
more  efficient  and  useful.     [14  words.] 

Inflated  writing :  She  was  supreme  in  beauty  among  the  daugh- 
ters of  Eve  whom  his  ravished  eyes  had  hitherto  beheld.  [17 
words.] 

Right:  Shp  was  the  most  beautiful  woman  he  had  ever  seen. 
[10  words.] 

Note. —  A   special  form  of   wordiness   is  tautology  —  the 
useless  repetition  of  an  idea  in  different  words. 

Gross  tautology:     He  had  an  entire  monopoly  of  the  whole  fruit 

trade.     [This  is  like  saying  "black  blackbird."] 
Right:     He  had  a  monopoly  of  the  fruit  trade. 
Tautological  expressions : 

this  here  connect  up 

where  at  meet  up  with 

return  back  combined  together 

ascend  up  perfectly  all  right 

repeat  again.  utter  absence  of 

biography  of  his  life  quite  round 

good  benefits  absolutely  annihilated 

fellow  playmates  still  continue  to 

Hallowe'en  evening  absolutely  new  creation 

important  essentials  necessary   requisite 

indorse  on  the  back  total  effect  of  all  this 

Exercise : 

1.  The  people  who  act  the  parts  in  a  play  want  the  people  who 

witness  the  performance  to  applaud  them. 

2.  There   is   an   oily  grass   which   is   found   on  the   prairie,   and 

which  is  called  mesquite  grass,  and  it  covers  the  prairie. 

3.  You  wish  to  call  the  operator.     You  take  the  receiver  from 

the  hook.     By  taking  the  receiver  from  the  hook  you  call 
the  operator. 

119 


61 

DICTION  —  TRITENESS 

4.  At  last  the  employer  of  the  men,  and  those  who  were  em- 

ployed by  him,  having  compromised  their  difficulties,  effected 
a  settlement,  and  reached  an  amicable  understanding  agree- 
able to  both  parties. 

5.  The  two  merchants  joined  up  their  forces  together  in  order 

to  secure  a  monopoly  of  the  entire  trade  of  the  village. 
There  was  one  absolutely  essential  prelnninary  which  they 
thought  must  necessarily  precede  everything  else.  It  was 
that  they  should  take  all  the  old  shop-worn  articles  and 
dispose  of  them  by  selling  them  as  bargains  at  'a  reduced 
rate. 

Triteness 

61.  Avoid  trite  or  hackneyed  expressions.  Such  expres- 
sions may  be  lags  from  everyday  speech  (the  z^orsc  for 
zvear,  had  the  time  of  my  life)  ;  or  stale  phrases  from 
newspapers  ( taken  into  custody,  the  otficiating  clergy- 
man) ;  or  humorous  substitutions  {ferocious  canine, 
paternal  ancestor)  ;  or  forced  synonyms  {gridiron 
heroes,  the  Hoosier  metropolis)  ;  or  conventional  fine 
writing  (reigns  supreme,  zcind  kissed  the  tree-tops)  ;  or 
oft-repeated  euphemisms  (limb  for  leg,  pass  away  for 
die)  ;  or  overworked  quotations  from  Hterature  (mon- 
arch of  all  I  suri'cy,  footprints  on  the  sands  of  time). 

List  of  trite  expressions: 

along  these  lines  sadder  but  wiser 

meets  the  eye  did  justice  to  a  dinner 

feathered  songsters  a  goodly  number 

a  long-felt  want  budding  genius 

the  last  sad  rites  beggars  description 

launched  into  eternity  a  dull  thud 

last  but  not  least  silence  broken  only  by 

doomed  to  disappointment  wended  their  way 

at  one  fell  swoop  abreast  of  the  times 


62 


DICTION  — THE  EXACT  WORD 

trees  stood  like  sentinels  the  proud  possessor 

method  in  his  madness  too  full  for  utterance 

sun-kissed  meadows  a  pugilistic  encounter 

tired  but  happy  conspicuous  by  its  absence 

hoping  you  are  the  same  with  whom  they  come  in  contact 

nipped  in  the  bud  exception  proves  the  rule 

the  happy  pair  favor  with  a  selection 

seething  mass  of  humanity  as  luck  would  have  it 

specimen  of  humanity  more    easily    imagined    than    de- 

with  bated  breath  scribed 

green  with  envj*»  where  ignorance  is  bliss 

Exercise : 

1.  Halleck  returned  from  his  trip  considerably  the  worse   for 

wear. 

2.  The  baby  whom  she  had  promised  to  keep  quiet  proved  to 

be  a  foenian  worthy  of  her  steel. 

3.  I  first  saw  the  light  of  day  in  New  Orleans.     It  was  in  the 

Crescent  City  also  that  my  dear  mother  passed  away. 

4.  Americans   come   off   second  best   in  a   vocali.ding   encounter 

with  umlauted  u,  while  Germans  and  Frenchmen  wage 
sanguinary  battles  with  our  th. 

5.  The  daily  scramble  for  dear  life  to  get  aboard  a  trolley  was 

like  taking  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles.  Even  standing 
room  was  conspicuous  by  its  absence.  Sheridan  began  to 
think  along  the  line  of  getting  to  the  office  in  some  other 
way. 

The  Exact  Word 

62.  Find  the  exact  word.  Do  not  be  content  with  a  loose 
meaning.  Seek  the  verb,  the  noun,  the  adjective,  the 
adverb,  or  the  phrase  which  expresses  your  thought 
with  precision.  Such  words  as  said,  proposition,  and 
nice  are  often  used  too  loosely.  Observe  the  possible 
gain  in  definiteness  by  substitution. 

For  said   (verb)  :   declared,  related,  insisted,  exclaimed,  added, 
repeated,   replied,  admitted,   commented,  corrected,  protested, 


63 

DICTION  —  CONCRETENESS 

explained,  besought,  interrupted,  inquired,  stammered,  sighed, 

murmured,  or  thundered. 
For  p-roposition   (noun^  :   transaction,  undertaking,  venture,  re- 
course,  suggestion,    overture,   proposal,   proifer,   convenience, 

difficulty,  thesis,  or  doctrine. 
For  nice  (adjective)  :  discriminating,  precise,  fastidious,  dainty, 

neat,  pretty,  pleasant,  fragrant,  delicious,  ivell-bchaved,  good, 

or  moral. 
Inexact  verb:     He  had  not  sufficiently  regarded  the  difficuUies  of 

the  task  [Use  coisidered]. 
Inexact  noun:     Promptness  is  an  item  which  a  manager  should 

possess  [Use  quality]. 
Inexact  adjective:     He  looked  azv fully  funny  when  I  told  him 

he  had  made  a  mistake  [Use  surprised]. 
Inexact  phrasing  throughout:     Health  is  first  in  every  line  of 

activity.     A   man  who  has   it  does   not  hold   it  with   enough 

respect,  and  make  efforts  enough  to  keep  it. 
Right :     Health  is  indispensable  to  success  in  any  work.     Even 

those  who  have  it  do  not  realize  its  value. 

Exercise : 

1.  He  was  proud  of  the  honorable  record  he  had  gained. 

2.  He  resolved  that  some  day  he  would  be  a  banker,  and  I  shall 

tell  you  how  he  tried  to  do  so. 

3.  Isn't  the  sunset  grand?     Isn't  it  nice  to  be  out  of  doors? 

4.  The  mystery  as  to  which  ones  of  the  piano  keys  to  play  was 

hard  for  him  to  acquire. 

5.  If    the   package   comes   by    freight,    you    must   negotiate   the 

proposition  of  getting  it  home;  but  if  it  comes  by  express, 
the  delivery  is  done  free. 

Concreteness 

63.   Concrete  words  are  often  more  effective  than  vague, 
general,  or  abstract  words. 

Not  specific :     She  held  herself  aloof  from  her  brothers'  games 
and  amusements. 


64 


DICTION  — SOUND 

Concrete:  She  never  played  soldier  or  sailed  paper  boats  with 
her  brothers. 

No  appeal  to  the  senses ;  I  hked  to  watch  the  servant  girl  as  she 
moved  about  the  kitchen,  preparing  our  morning  repast. 

Concrete :  I  liked  to  watch  Norah  as  she  fried  our  crisp  break- 
fast bacon  and  browned  our  buckwheat  cakes. 

Flat,  not  readily  visualized:  The  first  inhabitants  overcame 
the  barriers  to  settlement  about  a  century  ago. 

Concrete :  Rough  backwoodsmen  broke  through  the  underbrush 
and  swamp-land  a  century  ago. 

Exercise : 

1.  The  scientist  discovered  a  bird  in  a  tree. 

2.  Our  hostess  set  before  us  many  good  things  to  eat. 

3.;  The  sailor  was  carving  queer  figures  on  a  piece  of  soft  wood. 

4.  The   night   watchman   heard    something   that   made   him    sus- 

picious. 

5.  I   stood   at   the   door  of   the   shop   to  watch  the  astonishing 

things  the  blacksmith  was  doing. 

Sound 

64.   Avoid  the  frequent  repetition  of  a  sound,  especially  if 
it  be  harsh  or  unpleasant. 

Bad :     He  is  an  exceedingly  orderly  secretary. 

Better :  As  a  secretary  he  is  very  systematic.  [Or]  The  secre- 
tary is  very  systematic. 

Bad:  Immediately  the  squirrel  hid  himself  behind  the  hickory 
tree. 

Better:  Immediately  the  squirrel  dodged  behind  the  hickory 
tree. 

Unfortunate  rime :     Bert  did  not  dare  to  go  home  with  wet  hair. 

Better:  Bert  did  not  dare  to  go  home  with  his  hair  wet.  [Or] 
Bert  was  afraid  to  go  home  with  wet  hair. 

Exercise : 

1.  That  Christmas  happened  to  be  unusually  happy. 

2.  I  fear  we  must  sit  near  the  rear  of  the  room. 

123 


65 

DICTION  —  SUBTLE  VIOLATIONS 

3.  The  Jackies  went  clambering  and  scurrying  up  the  rigging. 

4.  The  ship  slips  anchor  while  the  idlers  sip  tea  on  the  deck. 

5.  The  third  treasure-seeker  heard  a  thud.    His  pick  had  struck 

an  obstruction. 

Subtle  Violations  of  Good  Use: 

Faulty  Idioms,  Colloquialisms 

65.   Avoid  subtle  violations  of  good  use,  particularly   (a) 
faulty  idioms  and   (b)   colloquialisms. 

a.  Make  your  expression  conform  to  English  idiom.  A 
faulty  idiom  is  an  expression  which,  though  correct  in 
grammar  and  general  meaning,  combines  words  in  a 
manner  contrary  to  usage.  Idioms  are  established  by 
custom,  and  cannot  be  explained  by  logical  rules.  "  I 
enjoy  to  read  "  is  wrong,  not  because  the  words  offend 
logic  or  grammar,  but  merely  because  people  do  not 
instinctively  make  that  combination  of  words.  "  I 
like  to  read  "  and  "  I  enjoy  reading  "  are  good  idioms. 

Faulty  Idioms  Correct  Idioms 

in  the  city  Toledo  in  the  city  of  Toledo 

in  the  year  of  1920  in  the  year  1920 

I  hope  you  a  good  time  I  wish  you  a  good  time 

the  Rev.  Hopkins  the  Reverend  Mr.  Hopkins 

possessed  with  ability  possessed  of  ability 

stay  to  home  stay  at  home 

different  than  different  from 

independent  from  independent  of 

in  search  for  in  search  of 

Observe  that  many  idioms  are  concerned  with  preposi- 
tions. Make  sure  that  a  verb  or  adjective  is  accompa- 
nied by  the  right  preposition.     Study  the  following  list 

of  correct  idioms : 

124 


DICTION  — SUBTLE  VIOLATIONS 

accused  of  (a  theft)  correspond  to   (things) 

accused  by  (a  person)  correspond  with   (persons) 

accord  with  (a  person)  dissent  from 

agree  with  (a  person)  enamored  of 

agree  to  (a  proposal)  entrust  to 

agreeable  to  free  from 
angry  at  (things  or  persons)        listen  to 

.angry  with   (a  person)  part  from  (a  person) 

careful  about  (an  affair)  part  with   (a  thing) 

careful  of  (one's  money)  pleased  with 

comply  with     *  resolve  on 

convenient  to  (a  person)  sympathize  with 

convenient  for  (a  purpose)  take  exception  to 

b.  Do  not  carry  the  standards  of  conversation  into  formal 
writing.  Colloquial  usage  is  more  free  than  literary 
usage.  The  colloquial  sentence  That's  the  man  I  talked 
with  becomes  in  writing  That  is  the  man  ivith  zvhom  I 
talked.  The  colloquial  sentence  It  zias  a  cold  day  but 
there  wasn't  any  zuind  blozving  is  a  loose  string  of 
words.  Written  discourse  requires  greater  tension  and 
more  care  in  subordinating  minor  ideas:  The  day, 
though  cold,  zvas  still.  Contractions  are  proper  in  con- 
versation, and  in  personal  or  informal  writing.  In  for- 
mal writing  they  are  not  appropriate.  And  do  not  let 
such  expressions  as  He  doesn't.  We  aren't.  It's  proved, 
used  in  talk  by  careful  speakers,  mislead  you  into  ex- 
pressions like  He  don't,  We  ain't,  It's  proven,  which  vio- 
late even  colloquial  good  use. 

Exercise : 

1.  He  confessed  of  his  inability  to  comply  to  the  demand. 

2.  Is  he  from  Irish  descent?     Is  humor  characteristic  with  the 

Irish? 

3.  She  was  not  to  home,  but  I  was  reluctant  against  leaving. 

125 


66 

DICTION  — GROSS  VIOLATIONS 

4.  He  dissented  to  the  opinion  of  the  committee's  majority,  for 

his  ideas  were  utterly  different  than  theirs. 

5.  He  got  a  few  jobs  as  a  carpenter  that  summer,  but  they  didn't 

pay  him  much,  and  so  he  went  to  loafing  around,  and  he's 
been  at  it  ever  since. 

Gross  Violations  of  Good  Use: 

Barbarisms,  Improprieties,  Slang 

66.   Avoid  gross  violations   of  good  use,  particularly    (a) 
barbarisms,  (b)   improprieties,  and  (c)  slang. 

a.  Barbarisms  are  distortions  of  words  in  good  use,  or 

coinages  for  which  there  is  no  need.  Examples :  to 
conccrtize,  to  burgle  or  burglarize,  to  jell,  alright, 
a-plenty,  most  (for  almost),  performess,  fake,  pep,  tasty, 
illy,  complected,  undoubtably,  iiozvheres,  soph,  lab,  gents. 

b.  Improprieties   are   words   wrenched   from   one   part   of 

speech  to  another,  or  made  to  perform  an  unnatural 
service.  Examples:  to  suspicion,  to  gesture,  to  sui- 
cide, a  steal,  a  try,  a  go,  an  invite,  the  eats,  humans,  some 
or  real  or  swell  (as  adverbs),  like   (as  a  conjunction). 

C.  Slang  is  speech  consisting  either  of  uncouth  expressions 
of  illiterate  origin,  or  of  legitimate  expressions  used  in 
grotesque  or  irregular  senses.  Thougli  sometimes 
(witness  eighteenth  century  mob,  and  nineteenth  cen- 
tury buncombe)  it  satisfies  a  real  need  and  becomes 
established  in  the  language,  in  most  instances  it  is  short- 
lived (witness  the  thieves'  talk  in  Oliver  Tivist,  or  pas- 
sages from  any  comic  opera  song  popular  five  years 
ago).     Vicious  types  of  slang  are: 

Expressions  of  vulgar  origin   (from  criminal  classes,  the  prize 
ring,  the  vaudeville  circuit,  etc.)  :  get  pinched,  down  and  out, 

126 


DICTION  — WORDS  OFTEN  CONFUSED 

took  the  count,  bum  hunch,  nix  on  the  comedy  stuff,  get  across. 
Language  strained  or  distorted  for  novel  effect:  performed  the 

feed  act  at  a  bang-up  gastronomic  emporium,  bingtcd  a  tall 

drive  that  made  the  horsehide  ramble  out  into  center  garden. 
Blanket  expressions  used  as  substitutes   for  thinking:   corking, 

stunning,  ain't  it  fierce?  can  you  beat  itf  going  some,  just  so 

I  get  by  ivith  it. 

The  use  of  the  last-named  type  is  most  to  be  regretted. 
It  leads  to  a  .mental  habit  of  phonographic  repetition, 
with  no  resort* to  independent  thinking.  If  a  man  really 
desires  to  use  slang,  let  him  invent  new  expressions 
every  day,  and  make  them  fit  the  specific  occasion. 

Exercise : 

1.  I  disremember  what  sort  of  an  outfit  he  wore. 

2.  Helen's  as  light-complected  a  girl  as  you'll  run  across,  I  cal- 

culate. 

3.  His  ad  brought  a  first-rate  gent  to  hold  down  the  job. 

4.  Thompson  hasn't  stability,  or  it  seems  like  it.     He  ain't  got 

no  gumption.     He's  too  easy  enthused. 

5.  The  grub  was  to  of  cost  us  two  bits,  but  we  didn't  have  the 

dough.     We  gets  outside  the  food,  and  when  the  cashier 
ain't  lookin',  we  runs  out  the  door  and  beats  it. 

Words  Often  Confused  in  Meaning 

67.   Do  not  confuse  or  interchange  the  meanings  of  the  fol- 
lowing words : 

Accept  and  except.  Accept  means  to  receive;  except  as  a 
verb  means  to  exclude  and  as  a  preposition  means  zvith  the 
exception  of. 

Affect  and  effect.  Affect  is  not  used  as  a  noun;  effect  as  a 
noun  means  result.  As  verbs,  affect  means  to  influence  in 
part;  effect  means  to  accomplish  totally.  "  His  story  affected 
me   deeply."    "The   Russians   effected   a   revolution."    Affect 

127 


DICTION  — WORDS  OFTEN  CONFUSED 

also  has  a  special  moaning  to  feign.     "  She  had  an  affected 
manner." 

Allusion  and  illusion.  Allusion  means  a  reference;  illusion 
means  a  deceptive  appearance.  "  A  Biblical  allusion."  "  An 
optical  illusion." 

Already  and  all  ready.  Already  means  by  this  time  or  before- 
hand; all  ready  means  zvholly  ready.  "  I  have  already  invited 
him."     "  Dinner  is  ail  ready."     "  We  are  all  ready  for  dinner." 

Altogether  and  all  together.  Altogether  means  zvholly,  en- 
tirely; all  together  means  collectively,  in  a  group.  "  He  is 
altogether  honest."  "  The  King  sent  the  people  all  together 
into  exile." 

Can  and  may.  Can  means  to  be  able;  may  means  to  have  per- 
mission. Can  for  may  has  a  certain  colloquial  standing,  but 
is  condemned  by  literary  usage. 

Emigrate  and  immigrate.  Emigrate  means  to  go  out  from 
a  country;  immigrate  means  to  enter  into  a  country.  The  same 
man  may  be  an  emigrant  when  he  leaves  Europe,  and  an 
immigrant  when  he  enters  America. 

Healthy  and  healthful.  Healthy  means  having  health;  health- 
ful means  giving  health.  "  Milk  is  healthful."  "  The  climate 
of  Colorado  is  healthful."     "  The  boy  is  healthy." 

Hanged  and  hung.  Hanged  is  the  correct  past  tense  of  hang 
in  the  sense  put  to  death,  hanged  on  the  gallons;  hung  is  the 
correct  past  tense  for  the  general  meaning  suspended. 

Hygienic  and  sanitary.  Both  words  mean  pertaining  to 
health.  Hygienic  is  used  when  the  condition  is  a  matter  of 
personal  habits  or  rules ;  sanitary  is  used  when  the  condition 
is  a  matter  of  surroundings  (water  supply,  food  supply,  sew- 
age disposal,  etc.)  or  the  relations  of  numbers  of  people. 

Instants  and  instance.  Instants  means  small  portions  of  time; 
instance  means  an  example. 

Later  and  latter.  Later  means  more  late;  latter  means  the 
second  in  a  series  of  two.  "The  latter"  is  used  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  phrase  "the  former." 

Lead  and  led.  Led  is  the  past  tense  of  the  verb  to  lead.  Lead 
is  the  present  tense. 

128 


DICTION  — WORDS  OFTEN  CONFUSED 

Learn  and   teach.    Learn  means   io  get  knozvledge   of;   tec 
means  to  give  knozvledge  of  or  to.     "  The  instructor  teaches 
(not  learns)  me  physics."     "  He  learns  his  lessons  easily." 

Leave  and  let.    Leave  means  to  abandon;  let  means  to  permit. 

Less  and  fewer.  Less  refers  to  quantity ;  fewer  refers  to  num- 
ber.    "  He  has  feu'er  (not  less)  horses  than  he  needs." 

Liable,  likely,  and  apt.  Likely  merely  predicts ;  liable  conveys 
-the  additional  idea  of  harm  or  responsibility.  Apt  applies 
usually  to  persons,  in  the  sense  of  having  natural  capability, 
and  sometimes  to  things,  in  the  sense  of  fitting,  appropriate. 
"  It  is  likely  to  Ce  a  pleasant  day."  "  I  fear  it  is  liable  to  rain." 
"  He  is  liable  for  damages."  "  He  is  an  apt  lad  at  his  books." 
"  That  is  an  apt  phrase." 

Lie  and   lay.    Lay,  a  transitive  verb,   means   to   cause   to   lie. 
'  "  I  lay  the  book  on  the  table  and  it  lies  there."     "  Now  I  lay 
me  down  to  sleep."     A  source  of  confusion  between  the  two 
words  is  that  the  past  tense  of  lie  is  lay: 
I  lie  down  to  sleep.  I  lay  the  book  on  the  table. 

I  lay  there  yesterday.  I  laid  it  there  yesterday. 

I  have  lain  here  for  hours.      I  have  laid  it  there  many  times. 

Like  and  as  or  as  if.  Like  is  in  good  use  as  a  preposition,  and 
may  be  followed  by  a  noun;  as  is  in  good  use  as  a  conjunction, 
and  may  be  followed  by  a  clause.  "  He  is  tall  like  his  father." 
"He  is  tall,  as  his  father  is."  "It  looks  as  if  (not  like)  it 
were  going  to  rain." 

Lose  and  loose.  Lose  means  to  cease  having;  loose  as  a  verb 
means  to  set  free,  and  as  an  adjective,  free,  not  bound. 

Majority  and  plurality.  In  a  loose  sense,  majority  means  the 
greater  part.  More  strictly,  it  means  the  number  by  which 
votes  cast  for  one  candidate  exceed  those  of  the  opposition. 
A  plurality  is  the  excess  of  votes  received  by  one  candidate 
over  his  nearest  competitor.  In  an  election  A  receives  500 
votes ;  B,  400  votes ;  and  C,  300  votes.  A  has  a  plurality  of 
100,  but  no  majority. 

Practical  and  practicable.  Practical  means  not  theoretical; 
practicable  means  capable  of  being  put  into  practice.  "  A 
practical  man."     "  The  arrangement  is  practicable." 

129 


DICTION  — WORDS  OFTEN  CONFUSED 

Principal  and  principle.  Principal  as  an  adjective  means  chief 
or  leading;  principle  as  a  noun  means  a  (jcncral  truth.  Prin- 
cipal as  a  noun  means  a  sum  of  money,  or  the  chief  oMcial 
of  a  school. 

Proof  and  evidence.  In  a  law  court,  proof  is  evidence  suffi- 
cient to  establish  a  fact;  evidence  is  zvhatever  is  brought  for- 
zvard  in  an  attempt  to  establish  a  fact.  "  The  evidence  against 
the  prisoner  was  extensive,  but  hardly  proof  of  his  guilt." 
In  ordinary  speech,  proof  is  sometimes  loosely  used  as  a 
synonym  for  ezndence. 

Pseudo^  and  quasi=.  As  a  prefix,  pseudo-  means  false;  quasi- 
means  literally  as  if,  hence  seeming,  so-called.  "  Phrenology 
is  a  pseudo-science."     "A  quasi-evolutionary  doctrine." 

Quiet  and  quite.  Quiet  is  an  adjective  meaning  calm,  not 
noisy;  quite  is  an  adverb  meaning  entirely. 

Respectfully  and  respectively.  Respectfully  means  in  a  cour- 
teous manner;  respectively  means  in  a  way  proper  to  each. 
"Yours  respectfully"  (not  respectively).  "He  handed  the 
commissions  to  Gray  and  Hodgins  respectively." 

I^ise  and  raise.  Rise  is  an  intransitive  verb;  raise  is  a  transi- 
tive verb.  "  I  rise  to  go  home."  "  I  raise  vegetables."  "  I 
raise  the  stone  from  the  ground." 

Sit  and  set.  Set,  a  transitive  verb,  means  to  cause  to  sit.  "  He 
sets  it  in  the  corner  and  it  sits  there."  The  past  tense  of  sit 
is  sat. 

1  sit  down.  I  always  set  it  in  its  place. 

He  sat  in  this  very  chair.        I  set  it  in  its  place  yesterday. 
He  has  sat  there  an  hour.       I  have  always  set  it  just  here. 

Stationary  and  stationery.  Stationary  is  an  adjective  mean- 
ing fixed;  stationery  is  a  noun  meaning  ziriting  materials. 

Statue,  stature,  and  statute.  Statue  means  a  carved  or 
moulded  figure;  stature  means  height;  statute  means  a  law. 

Exercise : 

I.  Insert  affect  or   effect:     Noise  does  not  my   studying. 

It  has  little  on  me.     By  the  exercise  of  will   power 

I  was  able  to  a  change. 

130 


GLOSSARY  OF  FAULTY  DICTION 

2.  Insert  healthy  or  healthful:     New  Mexico  has  a climate. 

Graham  bread  is  .     You  will  be  if  you  take  exer- 
cise. 

3.  Insert  later  or  latter:     I   will  see  you  .     Here  are  two 

plans ;  the  former  is  complex ;  the  is  simple.     Sooner 

or  you  will  learn  the  rule. 

4.  Insert  less  or  fezver:     They  have  money  than  we;   we 

have  • pleasures  than  they.     It  seems  to  me  there  are 

accidents. 

5.  Insert  principal  or  principle:     The  part  of  a  clock  is  the 

pendulum,  which  swings  regularly,  according  to  a  of 

science.     My  reason  for  trusting  him  is  that  he  is  a 

man   of   .     He   is   the   of   the   high   school.     The 

widow    spends   the   interest   on   the   money,   but   keeps   the 
intact. 

Glossary  of  Faulty  Diction 

68.   Avoid  faulty  diction. 

Ad  (for  advertisement).  Avoid  in  formal  writing  and  speak- 
ing. 

Ain't.     Never  correct.     Say  isn't  or  is  not. 

All  the  farther,  all  the  faster.  Crude.  Use  as  far  as,  as  fast 
as. 

Alright.     No  such  word  exists.     Use  all  right. 

As.  (a)  Incorrect  in  the  sense  of  that  or  whether.  "I  don't 
know  tvhcther  (not  as)  I  can  tell  you."  "  Not  that  (not  as)  I 
know."  (b)  As  .  .  .  as  are  correlatives.  Than  nuist  not  re- 
place the  second  as.  Right:  "  .^s  good  as  or  better  than  his 
neighbors."  "As  good  as  his  neighbors,  or  lietter  [than 
they]."     See  57. 

Auto.     An  abbreviation  not  desirable  in  formal  writing. 

Awful.  Means  filling  zvith  azce  or  filled  zvith  aive.  Do  not  use 
in  the  sense  of  uncivil,  serious,  or  ludicrous,  or  (in  the  ad- 
verbial form)  in  the  sense  of  very,  extremely. 

Balance.    Incorrect  when  used  in  the  sense  of  remainder. 

131 


68 


GLOSSARY  OF  FAULTY  DICTION 

Because.  Not  to  be  used  for  the  fact  that.  "  The  fact  that 
(not  because)  he  is  absent  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not 
proceed."     See  5. 

Between.  Used  of  two  persons  or  things.  Not  to  be  confused 
with  among,  which  is  used  of  more  than  two. 

Blame  on.  A  crudity  for  put  the  blame  on  or  blame.  Faulty: 
"  Don't  blame  it  on  me."     Better :     "  Don't  blame  me." 

Borned.  A  monstrosity  for  born.  "I  was  horn  (not  horned) 
in  1899." 

Bursted.     The  past  tense  of  hurst  is  the  same  as  the  present. 

Bust  or  busted.  Vulgar  for  burst.  Right:  "The  balloon 
burst."     "  The  bank  failed." 

But  what.  That  is  often  preferable.  "  I  do  not  doubt  that 
(not  but  zvhat)  he  is  honest." 

Canine.     An  adjective.     Not  in  good  use  as  a  noun. 

Cannot  help  but.  A  confusion  of  can  hut  and  cannot  help. 
"I  can  but  believe  you";  or  "I  cannot  help  believing  you"; 
not  "  I  cannot  help  but  believe  you."     See  34. 

Caused  by.  To  be  used  only  when  it  refers  definitely  to  a 
noun.  Wrong :  "  He  was  disappointed,  caused  by  the  late- 
ness of  the  train."  The  noun  disappointment  should  be  used 
instead  of  the  verb  disappointed.  Then  caused  will  have  a 
definite  reference.  Right:  "His  disappointment  was  caused 
by  the  lateness  of  the  train."     See  23. 

Claim.  Means  to  demand  as  a  right.  Incorrect  for  maintain 
or  assert. 

Considerable.  An  adjective,  not  an  adverb.  "He  talked  con- 
siderably (not  considerable)  about  it." 

Could  of.  An  illiterate  form  arising  from  slovenly  pronuncia- 
tion. Use  could  have.  Avoid  also  ^103;  of,  must  of.  would  of, 
etc. 

Data.  Plural.  The  singular  (seldom  used)  is  datum.  Com- 
pare stratum,  strata;  erratum,  errata. 

Demean.     Means  to  conduct  oneself,  not  to  loiver  or  to  degrade. 

Different  than.  Different  from  is  to  be  preferred.  Thati  is  a 
conjunction.  The  idea  of  separation  implied  in  different  calls 
for  a  preposition,  rather  than  a  word  of  comparison. 

132 


68 


GLOSSARY  OF  FAULTY  DICTION 

Disremember.    Not  in  good  use. 

Done.  A  gross  error  when  used  as  the  past  tense  of  do,  or  as 
an  adverb  meannig  already.  "  I  did  it  (not  /  done  it)."  "  I've 
already  (not  done)  got  my  lessons." 

Don't.  A  contraction  for  do  not;  never  to  be  used  for  does 
not.     The  contraction  of  does  not  is  doesn't.     See  5id. 

Drownded.    Vulgar  for  drowjied.    . 

Dye  to.  Tp  be  used  only  when  it  refers  definitely  to  a  noun. 
Faulty :  "  He  refused  the  offer,  due  to  his  father's  opposi- 
tion." Right:  "His  refusal  of  the  offer  was  due  to  his  fa- 
ther's oppositioiT."  The  noun  refusal  should  be  used  instead 
of  the  verb  refused.  Then  due  will  have  a  definite  reference. 
See  5. 

Enthuse.    Not  in  good  use. 

Etc.  An  abbreviation  for  the  Latin  et  cetera,  meaning  and  other 
[things].  Et  means  and.  And  etc.  is  therefore  grossly  in- 
correct.    Do  not  write  ect. 

Expect.  Means  to  look  forward  to.  Hardly  correct  in  the 
sense  of  suppose. 

Fine.  Use  cautiously  as  an  adjective,  and  not  at  all  as  an  ad- 
verb.    Seek  the  exact  word.     See  62. 

Former.  Means  the  first  or  first  named  of  two.  Not  to  be 
used  when  more  than  two  have  been  named.  The  correspond- 
ing word  is  latter. 

For  to.  Incorrect  for  to.  "I  want  you  (not  for  you)  to  listen 
carefully."     "He  made  up  his  mind  to  (not  for  to)  accept." 

Gent.     A  vulgar  abbreviation  of  gentleman. 

Good.  An  adjective,  not  an  adverb.  Wrong:  "He  did  good 
in  mathematics."  Right:  "He  did  well  in  mathematics." 
"  He  did  good  work  in  mathematics." 

Gotten.  An  old  form  now  usually  replaced  by  got  except  in 
such  expressions  as  ill-gotten  gains. 

Guess.  Expresses  conjecture.  Not  to  be  used  in  formal  com- 
position for  think,  suppose,  or  e.vpect. 

Had  of.  Illiterate.  "  I  wish  I  had  known  (not  had  of  known) 
about  it." 

Had  ought.    A  vulgarism.     "  He  ought  (not  had  ought)  to  have 

133 


68 


GLOSSARY  OF  FAULTY  DICTION 

resigned."    We    oughtn't    (not    hadn't    ought)    to    make    this 

error." 
Hardly.     Not  to  be  used  with  a  negative.     See  34. 
home.     Do  not  use  when  you  mean  simply  house. 
Human  or  humans.     Not  in  good  use  as  a  noun.     Say  human 

being.     Right :     "  The   house    was   not   fit    for   human   beings 

(not  humans)  to  hve  in." 
//.    Do  not  use   for  ivhether.     "  I  can't   say  whether   (not  if) 

the  laundry  will  be  I'lnishcd  today." 
In.    Often  misused   for   into.     "He  jumped  into    (not  in)    the 

pond." 
It's.    Means  it  is;  not  to  be  written  for  the  possessive  its. 
Kind   of.     (a)   Should   not   modify   adjectives   or    verbs.     "He 

was  somewhat   (not  kind   of)    lean."    "She  partly  suspected 

(not  She  kind  of  suspected)  what  was  going  on."     (b)   When 

using  with  a  noun,  do  not  follow  by  a.     "That  kind  of  man"; 

not  "  That  kind  of  a  man." 
Like.    To  be  followed  by  a  substantive ;  never  by  a  substantive 

and  a  verb.     "He  ran  like  a  deer."     "Do  as  (not  like)  I  do.'' 

"She  felt  as  if  (not  like)   she  was  going  to  faint."     Like  is 

a  preposition;  as  is  a  conjunction. 
Literally.     Do  not  use  where  you  plainly  do  not  mean  it,  as  in 

the  sentence,  "  I  was  literally  tickled  to  death." 
Loan.    Lend  is  in  better  use  as  a  verb. 
Locate.     Do  not  use  for  settle  or  establish  oneself. 
Lose  out.     Not  used  in  formal  writing.     Say  lose. 
Lots   of.    A   mercantile   term   which   has   a   dubious  colloquial 

standing.     Not  in  good  literary  use  for  many  or  tnuch. 
Might  of.     A  vulgarism  for  might  have. 
Most.    Do  not  use  for  almost.    "  Almost  (not  most)  all." 
Myself.     Intensive  or   reflexive;   do  not  use  when  the   simple 

personal     pronoun     would     suffice.     "  I     saw     them     myself." 

"  Some  friends  and  /  (not  myself)  went  walking." 
Neither.     Used  with  nor,  and  not  with  or.    "  Neither  the  man 

whom  his  associates  had  suspected  nor  (not  or)  the  one  whom 

the  police  had  arrested  was  the  criminal."     "  She  could  neither 

paint  a  good  picture  nor  (not  or)  play  the  violin  well." 

134 


68 


GLOSSARY  OF  FAULTY  DICTION 

Nice.  Means  delicate  or  precise.  Nice  is  used  in  a  loose  col- 
loquial way  to  indicate  general  approval,  but  should  not  be  so 
used  in  formal  writing.  Right:  "He  displayed  nice  judg- 
ment."   "We  had  a  pleasant  (not  nice)  time."     See  62. 

Nowhere  near.     Vulgar  for  not  nearly. 

Nowheres.    Vulgar. 

O  and  Oh.     O  is  used  with  a  noun  in  direct  address ;  it  is  not 

.  separated  from  the  noun  by  any  marks  of  punctuation.  Oh 
is  used  as  an  interjection;  it  is  followed  by  a  comma  or  an 
exclamation  point.  "  Hear,  O  king,  what  thy  servants  would 
say."    "  Oh,  d&r  !  " 

Of.  Do  not  use  for  have  in  such  combinations  as  should  have, 
may  have,  ought  to  have. 

Off  of.  Use  off  alone.  "He  jumped  off  (not  off  of)  the  plat- 
form." 

Onto.  On,  upon,  or  some  equivalent  expression  is  usually 
preferable. 

Ought  to  of.    A  vulgarism  for  ought  to  have. 

Over  with.    Crude  for  over. 

Pants.  Trousers  is  the  approved  term  in  literary  usage.  Pants 
(from  pantaloons)  has  found  some  degree  of  colloquial  and 
connnercial  acceptance. 

Party.     Not  to  be  used  for  person,  except  in  legal  phrases. 

Phone.  A  contraction  not  employed  in  formal  writing.  Say 
telephone. 

Plenty.  A  noun;  not  in  good  use  as  an  adjective  or  an  adverb. 
"He  had  plenty  of  (not  plenty)  resources."  "He  had  re- 
sources in  plenty   (not  resources  plenty)." 

Proposition.  IVIeans  a  thing  proposed.  Do  not  use  loosely, 
as  in  the  sentence :  "  A  berth  on  a  Pullman  is  a  good  propo- 
sition during  a  railway  journey  at  night."     See  62. 

Proven.     Prefer  proved. 

Providing.  Prefer  provided  in  such  expressions  as  "  I  will 
vote  for  him  provided  (not  providing)  he  is  a  candidate." 

Quite  a.  Colloquial  in  such  expressions  as  quite  a  while,  quite 
a  few,  quite  a  number. 

13s 


68 


GLOSSARY  OF  FAULTY  DICTION 

Raise.  Rear  or  bring  up  is  preferable  in  speaking  of  children, 
"She  reared  (not  raised)  seven  children." 

Rarely  ever.     Crude  for  rarely,  hardly  ever. 

Real.  Crude  for  very  or  really.  "  She  was  very  (not  real) 
intelligent."     "  He  was  really  (not  real)  brave." 

Remember  of.     Not  to  be  used  for  reiiieinber. 

Right  smart  and  Right  smart  of.     Extremely  vulgar. 

Same,  No  longer  used  as  a  pronoun  except  in  legal  documents. 
"  He  saw  her  drop  the  purse  and  restored  it  (not  the  same)  to 
her." 

Scarcely.    Not  to  be  used  with  a  negative.    See  34. 

Seldom  ever.     Crude  for  seldom,  hardly  ever. 

Shall.     Do  not  confuse  with  will.     See  53. 

Sight.  A  sight  or  a  sight  of  is  very  crude  for  many,  much,  a 
great  deal  of.    "A  great  many  (not  a  sight)  of  them." 

So.  Not  incorrect,  but  loose,  vague,  and  often  unnecessary, 
(a)  As  an  intensive,  the  frequent  use  of  so  has  been  christened 
"the  feminine  demonstrative".  Hackneyed:  "I  was  so  sur- 
prised." Better:  "I  was  much  surprised."  Or,  "I  was  sur- 
prised." (b)  As  a  connective,  the  frequent  use  of  so  is  a 
mark  of  amateurishness.     See  36  Note. 

Some.  Not  to  be  used  as  an  adverb.  "  She  was  somewhat  (not 
some)  better  the  next  day."  Wrong:  "He  studied  some 
that  night."     Right :     "  He  did  some  studying  that  nigh*  " 

Somewheres.    Very  crude.     Use  somewhere. 

Species.  Has  the  same  form  in  singular  and  plural.  "  He  dis- 
covered a  new  species  (not  specie)  of  sunflower." 

Such,  (a)  To  be  completed  by  that,  rather  than  by  so  that, 
when  a  result  clause  follows.  "  There  was  such  a  crowd  that 
(not  so  that)  he  did  not  find  his  friends."  (b)  To  be  com- 
pleted by  as,  rather  than  by  that,  tvho,  or  zvhich,  when  a  rela- 
tive clause  follows.  "  I  will  accept  such  arrangements  as  (not 
that)  may  be  made."  "  He  called  upon  such  soldiers  as  (not 
who)  would  volunteer  for  this  service  to  step  forward." 

Superior  than.     Not  in  good  use  for  superior  to. 

Sure.  Avoid  the  crude  adverbial  use.  "  It  surely  (not  sure) 
was  pleasant."     In  answer  to  the  question,  "Will  you  go?" 

136 


68 


GLOSSARY  OF  FAULTY  DICTION 

either  sure  or  surely  is  correct,  though  surely  is   preferred. 

"  [To   be]    sure."     "  [You   may   be]    sure."     "  [I    will]    surely 

[go]." 
Suspicion.    A  noun.     Never  to  be  used  as  a  verb. 
Take  and.     Often  unnecessary,  sometimes  crude.     Redundant: 

"  He  took  the  ax  and  sharpened  it."     Better:     "He  sharpened 

the  ax."     Crude  :     "  He  took  and  nailed  up  the  box."     Better : 

."  He  nailed  up  the  box." 
Tend.     In  the  sense  to  look  after,  takes  a  direct  object  without 

an  interposed  to.    Attend,  however,  is  followed  by  to.     "The 

milliner's  assistant  tends  (not  tends  to)   the  shop."     "  I  shall 

attend  to  your  wants  in  a  moment." 
Tliat   there.     Do   not   use    for   that.     "  I   want   that    (not   that 

there)  box  of  berries." 
Them.    Not  to  be  used  as  an  adjective.    "Those   (not  them) 

boys." 
There    were    or    There    was.    Avoid    the    unnecessary    use. 

Crude :     "  There  were  seventeen  senators  voted  for  the  bill." 

Better :     "  Seventeen  senators  voted  for  the  bill." 
These  sort.  These  kind.    Ungrammatical.     See  51b. 
This  here.    Do  not  use  for  this. 
Those.     Do  not  carelessly  omit  a   relative  clause   after   those. 

Faulty :     "  He  is  one  of  those  talebearers."     Better :     "  He  is  a 

talebearer."     [Or]    "  He   is   one   of   those   talebearers   whom 

everybody  dislikes." 
Those  kind,  those  sort.     Ungrammatical.     See  51b. 
Till.     Do    not    carelessly    misuse    for    zvhen.    "  I    had    scarcely 

strapped  on  my  skates  when    (not   till)    Henry   fell   through 

an  air  hole." 
Transpire.     Means  to  give  forth  or  to  become  knoivn,  not  to 

occur.     "  The  secret  transpired."    "  The  sale  of  the  property 

occurred  (not  transpired)  last  Thursday." 
Try.    A  verb,  not  a  noun. 

Unique.     Means  alone  of  its  kind,  not  odd  or  unusual 
United   States.    Ordinarily    preceded    by    the.     "  The    United 

States  raised  a  large  army."     (Not  "United   States  raised  a 

large  army.") 

137 


68 


GLOSSARY  OF  FAULTY  DICTION 

Up.  Do  not  needlessly  insert  after  such  verbs  as  end,  rest, 
settle. 

Used  to  could.    Very  crude.     Say  used  to  be  able  or  once  could. 

Very.  Accompanied  by  vtuch  when  used  with  the  past  parti- 
ciple. "  He  was  very  much  (not  very)  pleased  with  his  re- 
ception." 

Want  to.  Not  to  be  used  in  the  sense  of  should,  had  better. 
"  You  should  (not  You  ivant  to)  keep  in  good  physical  con- 
dition." 

Way.  Not  to  be  used  for  avuay.  "Away  (not  way)  down  the 
street." 

Ways.  Not  to  be  used  for  zvay  in  referring  to  distance.  "  A 
little  way  (not  ways)." 

When,  (a)  Not  to  be  used  for  that  in  such  a  sentence  as  "  It 
was  in  the  afternoon  that  the  races  began."  (b)  A  whoi 
clause  is  not  to  be  used  as  a  predicate  noun.     See  6. 

Where,  (a)  Not  to  be  used  for  that  in  such  a  sentence  as  "I 
see  in  the  paper  that  our  team  lost  the  game."  (b)  A  where 
clause  is  not  to  be  used  as  a  predicate  noun.     See  6. 

Where  at.    Vulgar.     "Where  is  he?  (not  Where  is  he  at?)  " 

Which.  Do  not  use  for  ivho  or  that  in  referring  to  persons. 
"The  friends  ivho  (not  zvhich)  had  loved  him  in  his  boyhood 
were  still  faithful  to  him." 

Who.  Do  not  use  unnecessarily  for  which  or  that  in  referring 
to  animals.  Do  not  use  the  possessive  form  zvhose  for  of 
which  unless  the  sentence  is  so  turned  as  practically  to  require 
the  substitution. 

Will.    Do  not  confuse  with  shall.     See  53. 

Win  out.     Not  used  in  formal  writing  or  speaking. 

Woods.  Not  ordinarily  to  be  used  as  singular.  "A  wood  (nd\. 
A  woods)." 

Would  have.  Do  not  use  for  had  in  if  clauses.  "  If  you  had 
(not  zvould  have)  spoken  boldly,  he  would  have  granted  your 
request." 

Would  of.    A  vulgarism  for  would  have. 

You  was.    Use  You  zvcre  in  both  singular  and  plural. 

Yourself.    Intensive  or  reflexive ;  do  not  use  when  the  personal 

138 


69 


DICTION 

pronoun  would  suffice.     "  Von  (not  Yourself)  and  your  family 
must  come." 

Exercise: 

1.  Be  sure  the  gun  works  alright.     I  was  already  when  you  came. 

2.  He  talked  considerable,  but  I  couldn't  scarcely  remember  what 

all  he  said. 

3^  I  never  juspicioned  that  John  could  of  been  guilty  of  forging 
his  father's  note.     It  don't  seem  hardly  possible. 

4.  The  island  was  not  inhabited  by  humans.  It  was  different 
than  any  pl^e  I  ever  remember  of.  One  sailor  and  my- 
self climbed  a  sand  hill,  but  we  couldn't  see  any  signs  of 
life  anywheres. 

5'.  Hawkeye  walked  a  ways  into  a  woods.  He  was  a  right  smart 
at  ease,  for  he  had  Kildeer  with  him. 

69.  EXERCISE  IN  DICTION 

A.     Wordiness 

Strike  out  all  that  is  superfluous,  and  make  the  fol- 
lowing sentences  simple  and  exact. 

1.  Some  students  lack  the  ability  of  being  able  to  spell. 

2.  He  seems  to  enjoy  the  universal  esteem  of  all  men. 

3.  rhe  mind  rebels  against  the  enforced  discipline  imposed  upon 

it  by  others. 

4.  This  is  the  house  that  was  constructed  and  erected  by  a  young 

fellow  who  went  by  the  common  name  of  Jack. 

5.  There  are  invariably  people  in  the  world  who  always  want  to 

get    something    for    nothing.     I    saw    some    today    crowding 
round  a  soap  man  who  was  giving  away  free  samples  gratis. 

6.  Strawberries  which  grow  in  the  woods  or  anywhere  like  that 

have  a  flavor  that  is  better  than  that  of  those  which  grow 
in  gardens. 

7.  The  people  showed  Jackson  the  greatest  honor  it  is  within  their 

power  to  bestow  by  electing  him  president. 
139 


69 


DICTION 

8.  It  was  an  old  man  of  about  sixty  years,  and  he  carried  a  cane 

to  support  himself  with  when  he  took  a  walk.  He  pulled  out 
his  watch  to  see  what  time  it  was  every  few  minutes. 

9.  My  favorite  magazine  is  the  one  called  Popular  Mechanics.    I 

like  it  because  it  appeals  to  me. 

10.  There  is  a  bird,  and  that  bird  is  the  cuckoo,  that  seems  to  think 

it  unnecessary  to  build  its  own  nest,  and  so  it  occupies  any 
nest  that  it  happens  to  find. 

11.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  follow  if  one  would  like  to  be  able  to  de- 

velop his  memory  to  make  it  a  rule  to  learn  at  least  a  few 
lines  of  poetry  every  night  before  going  to  bed. 

12.  In  the  annals  of  history  there  is  no  historical  character  more 

unselfish  than  the  character  of  Robert  E.  Lee. 

13.  There  are  quite  a  few  hotels  in  Estes  Park,  which  is  in  Colo- 

rado, but  the  one  that  is  the  most  picturesque  and  striking 
so  that  you  remember  it  a  long  time  on  account  of  its  un- 
usual surroundings  is  Long's  Peak  Inn. 

14.  It  is  often,  but  not  always,  a  good  sign  that  when  one  person 

is  quick  to  suspect  another  person  of  disloyalty  or  dishon- 
esty that  he  himself  is  disloyal  or  dishonest. 

15.  The  canine  quadruped  was  under  suspicion  of  having  obliter- 

ated by  a  process  of  mastication  that  article  of  sustenance 
which  the  butcher  deposits  at  our  posterior  portal. 

B.     The  Exact  Word 

Substittite,  for  inaccurate  words  and  phrases,  expres- 
sions which  carry  an  exact  and  reasonable  meaning. 

1.  Ostrich  eggs  made  into  omelets  are  a  funny  experience. 

2.  A  small  back  porch  can  be  built  which  will  enter  directly  into 

the  kitchen. 

3.  Ruskin  uses  a  great  deal  of  unfamiliar  words. 

4.  Reading  will  broaden  the  point  of  view  of  a  student. 

5.  To  visit  the  plant  in  operation  is  indeed  a  spectacular  sight. 

6.  My  plants  grew  and  looked  nicer  than  any  I  ever  saw. 

7.  I  place  little  truth  in  that  article,  since  it  appeared  in  a  strong 

partisan  paper. 

140 


DICTION 

8.  The   manufacturing   of    automobiles    has   gained    to   quite   an 

extent. 

9.  Emerson  has  some  real  clever  thoughts  in  his  essays. 

10.  I  do  not  mean  to  degrade  our  local  street  car  system,  for  in- 

deed, it  is  good  along  some  lines. 

11.  I  want  to  attain  a  greater  per  cent  of  efficiency  in  my  study. 

12.  Imagination  is  an  important  part  in  the  successful  writing  of 

them^. 

13.  His  employer  praised  him  for  the  preparation  he  had  done. 

14.  I    used    water-wings    as   a   sort   of    a    "  safety    first "    until    I 

learned  how*  to  swim. 

15.  In  order  to  prevent  infection  from  disease,  two  big  things  are 

necessary. 

16.  The  pastor  delivered  the  announcements  and  after  the  collec- 

tion had  been  obtained,  he  presented  the  sermon  of  the  morn- 
ing. 

17.  Another  factor  in  my  career  that  winter  was  that  I  became  a 

part  of  the  orchestra. 

18.  It  was  a  mighty  nice  party  that  Mrs.  Jones  gave  and  everybody 

seemed  to  have  an  awfully  nice  time. 

19.  The  more  general  word  socialism  might  be  divided  into  three 

distinct  classes,  namely :   the  political  party,  the  theoretical 
socialist,  and  last  what  might  be  called  a  general  tendency. 

20.  Starting  with   the   pioneer   days   and   up  to  the   present   time 

every  energy  was  set  forth  to  lay  low  the  forests  and  to  get 
homes  from  the  wilderness. 

C.     Words  Sometimes  Confused  in  Meaning 
Use  the  word  which  accurately  expresses  the  thought. 

1.  The  climate  of  California  is  very   (healthful,  healthy). 

2.  (Leave,  let)  me  have  the  book. 

3.  He  is  afraid  that  he  will  (loose,  lose)  his  position. 

4.  The    (principal,    principle)    speaker   of   the   day   was    Colonel 

Walker. 

5.  I  cannot  run  (as,  like)  he  can. 

6.  An  hour  ago  he  (laid,  lay)  down  to  sleep. 

141 


DICTION 

7.  I  fear  we  are  (liable,  likely)  to  be  punished. 

8.  The  scolding  did  not  much  (affect,  effect)  him. 

9.  The  light  roller  presses  down  the  bricks  so  that  the  steam  roller 

will  break  (fewer,  less)  of  them. 
ID.  Whittier  makes  many  (allusions,  illusions)  to  the  Bible. 

11.  Bread  will   (raise,  rise)   much  more  quickly  in  a  warm  place 

than  in  a  place  where  there  is  a  draft. 

12.  It  hardly  seems  (credible,  creditable)   that  a  small  child  could 

walk  ten  miles. 

13.  I  can't  write  a  letter  on  this  (stationary,  stationery). 

14.  He  (sets,  sits)  at  the  head  of  the  table. 

15.  He  spoke  to  the  stranger  (respectfully,  respectively). 

16.  Did  the  president  (affect,  effect)  a  settlement  of  the  strike? 

17.  I  cannot  (accept,  except)  help  from  anyone. 

18.  Are  the  guests  (already,  all  ready)   for  dinner? 

19.  Is  the  train  moving  or  (stationary,  stationery)  ? 

20.  It  is  (apt,  likely,  liable)  to  be  pleasant  tomorrow. 

D.     Colloquialism,  Slang,  Faulty  Idiom,  etc. 

The  diction  of  the  following  sentences  is  incorrect  or 
inappropriate  for  written  discourse.  Improve  the  sen- 
tences. 

1.  I  was  kind  of  tired  this  morning,  but  now  I  feel  alright. 

2.  I  should  of  known  better. 

3.  A  young  lady  and  myself  went  walking. 

4.  He  is  out  of  town  for  a  couple  days. 

5.  I  feel  some  better  now. 

6.  He  will  benefit  greatly  from  the  results. 

7.  The  Puritans  were  a  very  odd  acting  people. 

8.  I  like  camping  because  of  many  reasons. 

9.  Cook  your  meal,  and  after  you  are  finished  eating,  wash  the 

dishes. 

10.  He  is  a  regular  genius  of  a  bookkeeper. 

11.  It  is  hard  to  see  how  humans  can  live  in  such  tenements. 

12.  The  soldiers  destroyed  property  without  the   least   regard  of 

who  owned  it. 

142 


69 

DICTION 

13.  She  was  crazy  for  an  invite  to  the  hop. 

14.  It  was  up  to  me  to  get  out  before  there  was  something  doing. 

15.  The    Gettysburg    Address    is    very    simple    of    understanding 

though  very  strong  of  meaning. 

16.  When  we  become  located  in  a  desirable  locality,  we  intend  to 

pay  off  some  of  our  social  indebtedness. 

17.  Have  some  local  glass  dealer  to  mend  the  broken  door,  and 
-     send  us  the  bill  for  the  same. 

18.  The  first  part  of  Franklin's  Autobiography  is  different  than 

the  latter  part,  which  he  wrote  after  the  Revolutionary  War. 

19.  In  1771  a  fellow  by  the  name  of  Arkwright  established  a  mii] 

in  which  spinning  machines  were  run  by  water  power. 

20.  Each  day  has  brought  closer  to  home  the  truth  that  the  condi- 

tion of  mankind  in  one  part  of  the  world  is  certain  to 
effect  the  equilibrium  of  mankind  in  most  all  other  parts 
of  the  world. 


<43 


70 


•     SPELLING 

No  one  is  able  to  spell  all  unusual  words  on  demand. 
But  every  one  must  spell  correctly  even  unusual  words 
in  formal  writing.  The  writer  has  time  or  must  take 
time  to  consult  a  dictionary.  The  best  dictionaries  are 
Webster's  Neiv  International  Dictionary,  the  Standard 
Dictionary  (less  conservative  than  Webster's),  the 
Century  Dictionary  and  Cyclopedia  (Volume  11  of  the 
Century  is  the  best  place  to  look  for  proper  names),  and 
Murray's  Nezv  English  Dictionary  (very  thorough,  each 
word  being  illustrated  with  numerous  quotations  to 
show  historical  development).  An  abridged  edition  of 
one  of  these  (the  price  is  one  to  three  dollars)  should 
be  accessible  to  each  student  who  cannot  buy  the  larger 
volumes.  The  best  are:  Webster's  Secondary  School 
Dictionary,  Funk  and  Waqnalls  Desk  Standard  Dic- 
tionary, the  Oxford  Concise  Dictionary,  and  Webster's 
Collegiate  Dictionary. 

But  the  student  will  be  spared  constant  recourse  to 
the  dictionary,  and  will  save  himself  much  time  and 
many  humiliations,  if  he  will  employ  the  rules  and  prin- 
ciples which  follow. 

Recording  Errors 

Keep  a  list  of  all  the  words  you  misspell,  copying  them 
several  times  in  correct  form.  Concentrate  your  eiTort 
upon  a  few  words  at  a  time  —  upon  those  words  which 
you  yourself  actually  misspell.  The  list  will  be  shorter 
than  you  think.  It  may  comprise  not  more  than  twenty 
or  thirty  words.     Unless  you  are  extraordinarily  defi- 


SPELLING 

cient,  it  will  certainly  not  comprise  more  than  a  hundred 
or  a  hundred  and  fifty.  Find  where  your  weakness  lies ; 
then  master  it.  You  can  accomplish  the  difficult  part  of 
the  task  in  a  single  afternoon.  An  occasional  review, 
and  constant  care  when  you  write,  will  make  your  mas- 
tery permanent. 

"  After'this,  and  only  after  this,  begin  slowly  to  learn 
the  spelling  of  words  which  you  do  not  yourself  use 
often,  but  whkh  are  a  desirable  equipment  for  all  edu- 
cated men.  See  the  list  under  79.  Concentrate  your 
efforts  upon  a  fezv  zvords  at  a  time.  It  is  better  to 
know  a  few  exactly  than  a  large  number  hazily.  Form 
the  mental  habit  of  being  always  right  with  a  small 
group  of  words,  and  extend  this  group  gradually. 

Exercise  : 

Prepare  for  your  instructor  a  corrected  list  of  words  which  you 
have  misspelled  in  your  papers  to  the  present  time. 

Pronouncing  Accurately 

71.   Avoid     slovenly    pronunciation.     Careful     articulation 

makes  for  correctness  in  spelling. 

Watch  the  vowels  of  unaccented  syllables ;  give  them 
distinct  (not  exaggerated)  utterance,  at  least  until 
you  are  familiar  with  the  spelling.  Examples: 
separate,  opportunity,  everybody,  sophomore,  di- 
vine. 

Sound  accurately  all  the  consonants  between  syllables, 
and  do  not  sound  a  single  consonant  twice.  Ex- 
amples: candidate,  government,  surprise  (not 
supprisc).  omission  (compare  occasion),  defer 
(compare  differ). 

14s 


71 


SPELLING 

Sound  the  g  in  final  -ing.  Examples:  eating,  run- 
ning. 

Pronounce  the  -al  of  adverbs  derived  from  adjec- 
tives in  -ic  or  -al.  Examples :  tragically,  occa- 
sionally, generally,  ungrammatically . 

Do  not  transpose  letters ;  place  each  letter  where  it 
belongs.  Examples:  perspiration  (not  prespiror 
lion),  tragedy   (not  tradegy). 

Note. —  The  principle  of  phonetic  spelling  as  stated  above 
applies  to  many  words,  but  by  no  means  to  all.  The 
Simplified  Spelling  Board  would  extend  this  principle 
by  changing  the  spelling  of  words  to  correspond  with 
their  actual  sounds.  It  recommends  such  forms  as 
tho,  thru,  enuf,  quartet,  catalog,  program.  If  the 
student  employs  these  forms,  he  must  use  them  con- 
sistently. Many  writers  oppose  simplified  spelling; 
many  advocate  it;  many  compromise.  Others  desire 
to  supplant  our  present  alphabet  with  one  more  nearly 
phonetic,  and  prefer,  until  this  fundamental  reform 
takes  place,  to  preserve  our  present  spelling  as  it  is. 

Exercise : 
Copy  the  following  words  slowly,  pronouncing  the  syllables  as 
you  write:  accidentally,  accommodate,  accurately, 
artistically ,  athletics  (not  atheletics),  boundary, 
candidate ,  cavalry,  commission,  curiosity,  defer, 
definite,  description,  despair,  different,  dining 
room,  dinned,  disappoint ,  divide,  divine,  emphat- 
ically, eighth,  everybody ,  February,  finally,  god- 
dess, government ,  hundred,  hurrying .  instinct, 
laboratory ,  library,  lightning ,  might  have  (not 
might  of),  naturally,  necessary,  occasionally,  omis- 
sion,  opinion,   opportunity,   optimist,  partner,  pet' 

146 


SPELLING 

form,  perhaps,  perspiration ,  prescription,  primi- 
tive, priiilcyc ,  probably ,  quantity,  really,  recog- 
nize, recommend ,  reverence,  separate,  should  have 
(not  should  of),  sophomore,  strictly ,  superintend- 
ent, surprise,  temperance,  tragedy,  usually, 
whether. 

•    Logical  Kinship  in  Words 

72.  Get  help  in  spelHng  a  difficult  word  by  thinking  of  re- 
lated words.  To  think  of  ridiculous  will  prevent  your 
writing  a  for  the  second  i  of  ridicule;  to  think  of  ridi- 
cule will  prevent  your  writing  rediculons.  To  think 
of  prepare  will  prevent  your  writing  prepcraticn;  to 
think  of  preparation  will  forestall  prcparitory.  To 
think  of  busy  will  save  you  from  the  monstrosity  huis- 
ness.  To  think  of  the  prefixes  re-  (meaning  again) 
and  dis-  (meaning  not),  and  the  verbs  commend  and 
appoint,  will  prevent  your  writing  recommend  or  dis- 
appoint with  a  double  c  or  s. 

Note. —  The  relationship  between  words  is  not  always  a 
safe  guide  to  spelling.  Observe  four,  forty;  nine, 
nintli;  maintain,  maintenance ;  please,  pleasant;  speak, 
speech;  prevail,  prevalent.  Do  not  confuse  the  follow- 
ing prefixes,  which  have  no  logical  connection : 

ante-  (before)  anti-  (against,  opposite) 

de-  (from,  about)  dis-  (apart,  away,  not) 

per-  (through,  entirely)       pre-  (before) 

Exercise : 

I.  Write  the  nouns  corresponding  to  the  following  verbs:  pre- 
pare, allude,  govern,  represent. 

147 


73 

SPELLING 

2.  Write  the  adjectives   corresponding  to  the   following  nouns 

and  the  nouns  correspondnig  to  the  following  adjectives; 
desperation,  riduitloits,  >iiiiaculoits,  grammatical,  arith- 
metical, busy. 

3.  Write  the  adverbs  corresponding  to  the  following  adjectives: 

real,  sure,  actual,  hurried,  accidental,  incidental,  gram- 
matical. 

4.  Copy  the  following  pairs  of  related  words  or  related  forms 

of  words:  labor,  laboratory:  debate,  debater;  base,  based; 
deal,  dealt;  chose,  chosen;  mean,  meant. 

5.  Write  each  of  the   following  words   with   a  hyphen  between 

the  prefix  and  the  body  of  the  word :  describe,  description, 
disappoint,  disappear,  disease,  dissatisfy,  dissever,  permit, 
perspire,  prescription,  preconceize.  recommend,  recollect, 
reconsider,  antedate,  antecedent,  anticlimax,  antitoxin. 

Superficial  Resemblances  between  Words 

73.  Guard  against  misspelling  a  word  because  it  bears  a  su- 
perficial resemblance,  in  sound  or  appearance,  to  some 
other  word.  Most  of  the  words  in  the  following  list 
have  no  logical  connection ;  the  resemblance  is  one  of 
form  only  (angel,  angle).  But  a  few  words  are  in- 
cluded which  are  different  in  spelling  in  spite  of  a  logical 
relation  {breath,  breathe). 

accept  (to  receive)  all  right 

except   (to  exclude,  with  exclu-    almost 
sion  of)  already 

advice  (noun)  altogether 

advise  (verb)  always 

affect  (to  influence  in  part)  alley  (a  back  street) 

effect  (to  bring  to  pass  totally)      ally  (a  confederate) 

allusion    (a  reference)  altar   (a  structure  used  in  wor- 

illusion     (a     deceiving     appear-       ship) 
ance)  alter  (to  make  otherwise) 

148 


73 


SPELLING 


angel  (a  celestial  being) 
angle  (the  meeting  place  of 
lines) 

baring  (making  bare) 
barring  (obstructing) 
bearing   (carrymgj 

born  (brought  uito  being) 
borhe  (carried) 

breath   (noun) 
breathe  (verb)        •■ 

capital  (a  city) 
capitoi  (a  building) 

canvas  (a  cloth) 
canvass   (to  solicit) 

clothes   (garments) 
cloths  (pieces  of  cloth) 

coarse   (not  fine) 
course     (route,    method    of 
havior) 

conscious  Caware) 
conscience   (an  inner  mora] 

sense) 
dairy 
diary 

device  (noun) 
devise    (verb) 

desert    (a  barren  country) 
dessert  (food) 

(lining  room 
diiming 

disappear 
disappoint 


disavowal 
two    dissatisfaction 
dissimilar 
dissipate 
dissuade 

decent  (adjective) 
descent  (downward  slope  or  mo- 
tion) 
dissent  (a  disagreement) 

dual  (adjective) 
duel  (noun) 

formally  (in  a  formal  way) 
formerly  (in  time  past) 

forth 
forty 
four 
fourth 


(not    used   as    adjec- 


freshman 
be.    freshmen 
tive) 

gambling    (wagering   money   on 

games  of  chance) 
gamboling    (frisking   or   leaping 

with  joy) 

guard 
rega  rd 

hear 
here 

hinder 
hindrance 

holly  (a  tree) 
holy  (hallowed,  sacred) 
wholly  (altogether) 
149 


73 


SPELLING 


hoping  (from  hope) 
hopping 

instance  (an  example) 
instants  (periods  of  time) 

isle  (an  island) 

aisle  (a  narrow  passage) 

its  (possessive  pronoun) 
it's  (contraction  of  it  is) 

Johnson,  Samuel 
Jonson,  Ben 

later  (comparative  of  late) 
latter  (the  second) 

lead  (present  tense) 
led  (past  tense) 

lessen  (verb) 
lesson  (noun) 

liable     (expresses    responsibility 

or  disagreeable  probability) 
likely  (expresses  probability) 

loose  (free,  not  bound) 
lose  (to  suffer  the  loss  of) 

maintain 
maintenance 

nineteenth 
ninetieth 
ninety 
ninth 

past  (adjective,  adverb,  preposi- 
tion) 
passed  (verb,  past  tense) 

peace  (a  state  of  calm) 
piece  (a  fragment) 


perceive 

perform 

persevere 

persuade 

purchase 

pursue 

personal  (private,  individual) 
personnel    (the  body  of  persons 
engaged  in  some  activity) 

Philippines 
Filipino 

plain  (clear;  adjective) 
plain   (flat  region;  noun) 
plane   (flat;  adjective) 
plane  (geometrical  term;  noun) 

planed  (past  tense  of  plane) 
planned   (past  tense  of  plan) 

pleasant 
please 

precede 

,    these  three  are  the 

succeed  ^     .<  ,     ,  ,  „ 

double  e  group 
exceed  J 

concede 

intercede 

recede 

supersede 

precedence  (act  or  right  of  pre- 
ceding) 

prec  e  dents  (things  said  or  done 
before,  now  used  as  authority 
or  model) 

presence    (state    of    being    pres- 
ent) 
presents  (gifts) 
ISO 


73 


SPELLING 


prevail 
prevalent 

principal  (chief,  leading,  the 
leading  official  of  a  school,  a 
sum   of  money) 

principle  U  general  truth) 

quiet  (still) 
quite"  (complet'ely) 

rain 

reign  (rule  of  a  monarch) 

rein  (part  of  a  harness) 

respectfully   ("  Yours  respect- 
fully") 

respectively  (in  a  way  proper  to 
each  — should  never  be  used 
to  close  a  letter) 

right 

rite  (ceremony) 

write 

shone  (past  tense  of  shine) 
shown  (past  tense  of  shoiv) 

seize 

siege 

sight   (view,  spectacle) 

site  (situation,  a  plot  of  ground 
reserved  for  some  use) 

cite  (to  bring  forward  as  evi- 
dence) 

speak 
speech 

Spencer,  Herbert  (scientist) 
Spenser,  Edmund  (poet; 

stationary    (not  moving) 
stationery  (writing  materials) 


statue  (a  sculptured  likeness) 
stature  (height,  figure) 
statute   (a  law) 
steal  (.to  take  by  theft) 
steel  (a  variety  of  iron) 

than 

then 

their  (belonging  to  them) 

there   (in  that  place) 

they're   (they  are; 

therefor    (to  that  end,   for  that 

thing) 
therefore  (for  that  reason) 

till 

until 

to 

too 

two 

track  (an  imprint,  or  a  road) 

tract  (an  area  of  landj 

tract  (a  treatise  on  religion) 

village 

villain 

wandering 

wondering 

weak  (not  strong) 

week  (seven  days) 

weather 

whether 

whole  (entire) 

hole  (an  opening) 

vvhos  (who  is; 

whose  (the  possessive  of  who) 

your  (indicates  possession) 
you're  (contraction  of  you  are) 
151 


74 

SPELLING 

Exercise : 

1.  Insert  to,  too,  or  tzvo:     He  is tired  walk  the  

miles the  town.     Then ,  it  is late  catch  a 

car.     It  is  minutes  of  .     It  is  bad. 

2.  Insert  lose  or  loose:     Vou  will  your  money  if  you  carry 

it  in  your  pocket.     We  are  ing  time.     The  sailor 

ens  the  rope.     Did  you  your  ticket? 

3.  Insert  speak  or  speech:     I  was ing  with  our' congressman 

about  his  recent .     I  from  experience. 

4.  Insert   plan   or   plane:     The    architect's    was    accepted. 

The  carpenter's  cuts  a  long  shaving.     The  carpenter 

does  not  the  house. 

5.  Insert  quite  or  quiet:     The  baby  is  ly  sleeping.     She  is 

well  now,  but  last  night  she  was  sick.     Be  . 

Walk ly  when  you  go. 

Words  in    ei  or   ie 

74.  Write  i  before  e 

When  sounded  as  ee 
Except  after  c. 

Examples :     believe,  grief,   chief;  but  receive,   deceive, 

ceiling. 
Exception.s :     A' either  financier  seized  either  species  of 

zveird  leisure.     (Also   a   few   uncommon  words,   like 

seignior,  inveigle,  plebeian.) 
Rules  based  on  a  key-word,  lice,  Alice,  Celia  (i  follows 

/  and  e  follows  c)   apply  after  two  consonants  only, 

and  do  not  help  one  to  spell  a  word  like  grief.     Rule 

74  applies  after  all  consonants. 

Note. —  The  words  in  which  the  sound  is  ee  are  the 
words  really  difficult  to  spell.  When  the  sound  is  any 
other  than  ee  (especially  when  it  is  a),  i  usually  follows 
e. 

152 


75 


SPELLING 

Examples:     veil,     u'eigh,     freight,     neighbor,     height, 

sleight,  heifer,  counterfeit,  foreign,  etc. 
Exceptions:     ancient,  friend,  sieve,  mischief,  fiery,  tries, 

etc. 

Exercise : 
Write  the  fallowing  words,  supplying  ei  or  ie:    conc—t,  retr—ve, 
dcc—tful,    n—ce,   y—ld,   p—ce,   s—ge,   s—se,   rec—pt,   n—ther, 
IV— rd,  rel—ze,  I— sure,  f—ld,  v—n,  r—gn,  sover—gn,  sl—gh, 
br—f.  dec—ve,  r—fi,  f—nt,  perc—ve,  w—ld,  gr—vons,  —thcr. 

Doubling  a  Final  Consonant 

75.  Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the  final  syllable, 
if  they  end  in  one  consonant  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  double  the  consonant  before  a  suffix  beginning 
with  a  vowel. 

Examples:  (a)  Words  derived  from  monosyllables: 
plan-ned,  clan-nish,  get-ting,  hot-test,  bag-gage,  (b) 
Words  derived  from  words  accented  on  the  final  syl- 
lable :     begin-ning,  repel-lcnt,  unrcgret-tcd. 

Note  I. —  There  are  four  distinct  steps  in  the  application 
of  this  rule.  ( i )  The  primary  word  must  be  found. 
To  decide  whether  begging  contains  two  g's,  we  must 
first  think  of  beg.  (2)  The  primary  word  must  be  a 
monosyllable  or  a  word  accented  on  the  final  syllable. 
Hit  and  allot  meet  this  test ;  open  does  not.  Deferred 
and  differed,  preferred  and  proffered,  committed  (or 
committee)  and  prohibited  double  or  refrain  from 
doubling  the  final  consonant  of  the  primary  word  ac- 
cording to  the  position  of  the  accent.  The  seeming  dis- 
crepancy between  preferred  and  preferable,  between  con- 

153 


76 

SPELLING 

f erred  and  conference,  is  due  to  a  shifting  of  the  accent 
to  the  first  syllable  in  the  case  of  preferable  and  con- 
ference. (3)  The  primary  word  must  end  in  one  con- 
sonant. Trace,  oppose,  interfere,  help,  reach,  and  per- 
form fail  to  meet  this  test,  and  therefore  in  derivatives 
do  not  double  the  last  consonant.  Assurance  has  one 
r,  as  it  should  have ;  occurrence  has  two  r's,  as  it  should 
have.  (4)  The  final  consonant  of  the  primary  word 
must  be  preceded  by  a  single  vowel.  This  principle  ex- 
cludes the  extra  consonant  from  needy,  daubed,  and 
proceeding,  and  gives  it  to  running. 

Note  2. —  After  q,  u  has  the  force  of  tc.  Hence  quitting, 
quizzes,  squatter,  acquitted,  equipped,  and  similar  words 
are  not  really  exceptions  to  the  rule. 

Exercise: 

1.  Write   the   present  participle    (in   -ing)    of   din    (not   dine), 

begin,  sin  (compare  shine),  stop,  prefer,  rob,  drop,  occur, 
omit,  szviiii,  get,  commit. 

2.  Write    the    past    tense    (in    -ed)    of   plan    (not   plane),   star 

(compare  stare),  stop  (compare  slope),  lop  (not  lope), 
hop  (not  hope),  tit,  benefit,  occur  (compare  cure),  otfer, 
confer,  bat  (compare  abate). 

Final   e  before  a  SufBx  Beginning  with  a  Vowel 

76.  Words  that  end  in  silent  e  usually  drop  the  e  in  deriva- 
tives or  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel. 

Examples:  bride,  bridal:  guide,  guidance;  please, 
pleasure;  fleece,  fleecy;  force,  forcible;  argue,  arguing; 
arrive,  arrival;  conceive,  conceivable ;  college,  collegiate ; 
zvrite,  li'riting :  use.  using;  change,  changing;  judge, 
judging;  believe,  believing. 

1 54 


77 


SPELLING 

Note  I. —  Of  the  exceptions  some  retain  the  e  to  prevent 
confusion  with  other  words.  Exceptions :  dyeing, 
singeing,  mileage,  acreage,  hoeing,  shoeing,  agreeing, 
eyeing.  The  exceptions  cause  comparatively  little 
trouble.  One  rarely  sees  hoing  or  shoing;  he  often  sees 
hopeing  and  inviteing. 

Note  2. —  After  c  or  g  and  before  a  suffix  beginning  with 
a  or  o  the  e  is -retained.  The  purpose  of  this  retention 
is  to  preserve  the  soft  sound  of  the  c  or  g.  (Observe 
that  c  and  g  have  the  hard  sound  in  cable,  gable,  cold, 

go.) 

Examples :     peaceable,    changeable,   noticeable,   service- 
able, outrageous,  courageous,  advantageous. 

Exercise : 

1.  Write  the   present   participle   of   the   following   words:     use, 

love,  change,  judge,  shake,  hope,  shine,  have,  seize,  slope, 
strike,  dine,  coniij,  place,  argue,  achieve,  emerge,  arrange, 
abide,  oblige,  subdue. 

2.  Write  the  present  participle  of  the  following  words :     singe, 

tinge,  dye,  agree,  eye. 

3.  Write  the  -ous  or  -able  form  of  the  following  words :     trace, 

love,  blame,  move,  conceive,  courage,  service,  advantage, 
umbrage. 

4.  Write  the  adjectives  which  correspond  to  the  following  nouns: 

force,  sphere,  vice,  sense,  fleece,  college,  hygiene. 

5.  Write  the  nouns  which  correspond  to  the   following  verbs : 

please,  guide,  grieve,  arrive,  oblige,  prepare,  inspire. 

Plurals 

77a.  Most  nouns  add  s  or  es  to  form  the  plural.  Ex- 
amples: zvord,  "u'ords;  fire,  fires;  negro,  negroes;  Es- 
kimo, Eskimos:  leaf,  leaves  (f  changes  to  v  for  the 
sake  of  euphony)  ;  knife,  knives. 

1S5 


77 

SPELLING 

b.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  (or  by  u 
as  w)  change  the  y  to  i  and  add  es  to  form  the  plural. 

Examples :     sky,    skies;    lady,    ladies;    colloquy,    collo- 
quies; soliloquy,  soliloquies. 
Other  nouns  ending  in  y  form  the  plural  in  the  usual 
way.     Examples :  day,  days;  boy,  boys;  monkey,  mon- 
keys; valley,  valleys. 

C.  Compound  nouns  usually  form  the  plural  by  adding 
s  or  es  to  the  principal  word.  Examples :  so)is-in-laz\.', 
passers-by;  but  sta}id-bys. 

d.  Letters,  signs,  and  sometimes  figures,  add  's  to  form 

the  plural.  Examples :  Cross  your  t's  and  dot  your 
i's;  ?'s;  $'s;  3's  or  3s. 

e.  A   few  nouns   adhere  to   old   declensions.     Examples: 

o.v,  o.voi;  child,  children;  goose,  geese;  foot,  feet;  mouse, 
mice;  man,  men;  zvonian,  zvomen;  sheep,  sheep;  deer, 
deer;  szvine,  szvine. 

f.  Words  adopted  from  foreign  languages  sometimes  re- 

tain the  foreign  plural.  Examples:  alumnus, 
alumni;  alumna,  alunmcc;  fungus,  fungi;  focus,  foci; 
radius,  radii;  datum,  data;  medium,  media;  phenomenon, 
phenomena;  stratum,  strata;  analysis,  analyses;  antithe- 
sis, antitheses;  basis,  bases;  crisis,  crises;  oasis,  oases; 
hypothesis,  hypotheses;  parenthesis,  parentheses ;  thesis, 
theses;  beau,  beau.v;  tableau,  tableaux;  Mr.,  Messrs. 
{Messieurs) ;  Mrs.,  Mmes.  (Mesdames). 

Exercise : 
Write  the  singular  and  plural  of  the  following  words :  day,  sky, 
lady,  wife,  leaf,  loaf,  negro,  potato,  tomato,  pass,  glass,  boat, 

.56 


78 


SPELLING 

beet,  flash,  crash,  bead,  box,  passenger,  messenger,  son-in-law, 
Smith,  Jones,  jack-o'-lantern,  hanger-on,  stratum,  datum,  phe- 
nomenon, crisis,  basis,  thesis,  analysis. 

Compounds 

78a.  Use  a  hyphen  between  two  or  more  words  which  serve 
as  a  single  adjective  before  a  noun:  iron-bound 
bucket,  ivcll-kept  kiKn,  tn'clve-inch  main,  normal-school 
teacher,  up-to-date  methods,  twentieth-century  ideas, 
devil-may-care  expression,  a  tzcenty-dollar-a-zveek  clerk. 

But  when  the  words  follow  the  noun,  the  hyphen  is 
omitted.  The  lazcn  is  iccU  kept.  Methods  up  to  date 
in  every  zvay. 

Also  adverbs  ending  in  -]y  are  not  ordinarily  made  into 
compound  modifiers:  nicely  kept  lawn,  securely 
guarded  treasure. 

b.  Use  a  hyphen  between  members  of  a  compound  noun 
when  the  second  member  is  a  preposition,  or  when 
the  writing  of  two  nouns  solid  or  separately  might 
confuse  the  meaning:  runner-up,  kick-off;  letting- 
doivn  of  effort,  son-in-law,  jack-o'-lantern,  Pedro  was  a 
bull-fighter,  a  zvoman-hater,  Did  you  ever  see  a  shoe- 
polish  like  this? 

C.  Use  a  hyphen  in  compound  numbers  from  twenty- 
one  to  ninety-nine,  and  in  fractions  according  to  the 
following  examples: 

Twenty-three,  eighty-nine;  but  one  hundred  and  one. 
Twenty-third,  one-hundred-and-first  man. 
Three-fourths,  four  and   tw'o-thirds,   thirty-hundredths, 
thirty-one  hundredths. 

IS7 


78 

SPELLING 

But  omit  the  hyphen  in  simple  fractions  when  loosely 
used:  Three  quarters  of  uiy  life  are  spent.  One  third 
of  his  fortune. 

d.  A  hyphen  is  not  used  in  the  following  common  words : 

airship,  altogether,  anybody,  baseball,  basketball,  every- 
body, football,  goodby,  herself,  handbook,  himself,  inas- 
much, itself,  midnight,  myself,  nevertheless,  nobody, 
nothing  (but  no  one),  noztadays,  railroad,  themselves, 
together,  typcz<:ntten,  zvhereier,  without,  zcorkshop, 
yourself. 

e.  For  words  that  do  not  come  within  the  scope  of  rules, 

consult  an  up-to-date  dictionary.  Compounds  tend, 
with  the  passing  of  time,  to  grow  together.  Once  men 
wrote  steam  boat,  later  steam-boat,  and  finally  steamboat. 
New-coined  words  are  usually  hyphenated ;  old  words 
are  often  written  solid.  The  degree  of  intimacy  be- 
tween the  parts  of  a  compound  word  affects  usage ; 
thus  we  write  sun-motor,  but  sunbeam;  birth-rate,  but 
birthday;  cooling-room,  but  bedroom;  non-conductor, 
but  nonsense.  The  ease  with  which  a  vowel  blends 
with  the  consonant  of  a  syllable  adjoining  it  affects 
usage;  thus  self-evident,  but  selfsame;  non-e.vistent,  but 
nondescript;  un-Aynerican,  but  unwise.  Many  com- 
pounds, however,  are  still  uncontrolled  by  usage; 
whether  they  should  be  written  as  two  words  or  one, 
whether  with  or  without  the  hyphen,  the  dictionaries 
themselves   do  not  agree. 

Exercise : 
Copy  the  following  expressions,  inserting  hyphens  where  they 
are  necessary:     tzveuiy  tzvo  years  old,  tzventy  tivo   dollar  bills 

is8 


SPELLING 

make  forty  dollars,  twenty  seven  eighths  inch  boards,  a  normal 
school  graduate,  two  handled  boxes,  a  cloth  covered  basket, 
blood  red  sun,  water  tight  compartment,  sixty  horse  poiver  mo- 
tor, seven  dollar  bathing  suits,  a  happy  go  lucky  fellow,  germ 
destroying  powder,  he  had  a  son  in  law,  passers  by  on  the  street, 
(he  kick  off  is  at  three  o'clock,  dark  complcxioncd  zvoman,  silver 
tongued  orator,  a  dish  like  valley,  a  rope  like  tail,  a  fish  shaped 
cloud,  a  touch  me  not  expression,  ivill  o'  the  wisp,  well  to  do 
merchant,  rough  and  tumble  existence. 


79. 


SPELLING  LIST 


The  English  language  comprises  about  450,000  words. 
Of  these  a  student  uses  about  4000  (although  he  may 
understand  more  than  twice  that  number  when  he 
encounters  them  in  sentences).  Of  these,  in  turn,  not 
more  than  four  or  five  hundred  are  frequently  mis- 
spelled. The  following  list  includes  nearly  all  of  the 
words  which  give  serious  trouble.  Certain  American 
colleges  using  this  list  recjuire  of  freshmen  an  accuracy 
of  ninety  per  cent. 


absurd 

aggravate 

analysis 

ascend 

academy 

alley 

angel 

asks 

accept 

allotted 

angle 

athletic 

accidentally 

all  right 

annual 

audience 

accommodate 

ally 

anxiety 

auxiliary 

accumulate 

already 

apparatus 

awkward 

accustom 

altar 

appearance 

acquainted 

alter 

appropriate 

balance 

acquitted 

altogether 

arctic 

barbarous 

across 

alumnus 

argument 

baring 

addressed 

always 

arising 

barring 

adviser 

amateur 

arithmetic 

baseball 

aeroplane 

among 

arrange 

based 

affects 

analogous 

arrival 
159 

bearing 

79 


SPELLING 

becoming 

compelled 

dictionary 

excellent 

before 

couipetent 

difference 

except 

beggar 

concede 

digging 

exceptional 

begging 

conceivable 

dilemma 

exhaust 

beginning 

conferred 

dining  room 

exhilarate 

believing 

conquer 

dinning 

existence 

benefited 

conqueror 

disappear 

expense 

biscuit 

conscience 

disappoint 

experience 

boundaries 

conscientious 

disavowal 

explanation 

brilliant 

considered 

discipline 

Britain 

continuous 

disease 

familiar 

Britannica 

control 

dissatisfied 

fascinate 

buoyant 

controlled 

dissipate 

February 

bureau 

cooperate 

distinction 

fierv 

business 

country 

distribute 

fifth 

busy 

course 

divide 

finally 

courteous 

divine 

financier 

calendar 

courtesy 

doctor 

forfeit 

candidate 

cruelty 

don't 

formally 

can't 

cylinder 

dormitories 

formerly 

cemetery 

drudgery 

forth 

certain 

dealt 

dying 

forty 

changeable 

debater 

fourth 

changing 

deceitful 

ecstasy 

frantically 

characteristic 

decide 

effects 

fraternity 

chauffeur 

decision 

eighth 

freshman 

choose 

deferred 

eliminate 

(adj.) 

chose 

definite 

embarrass 

friend 

chosen 

descend 

eminent 

fulfil 

clothes 

describe 

encouraging 

furniture 

coarse 

description 

enemy 

column 

derived 

equipped 

gallant 

coming 

despair 

especially 

gambling 

commission 

desperate 

etc. 

generally 

committee 

destroy 

everybody 

goddess 

comparative 

device 

exaggerate 

government 

compel 

devise 

exceed 

governor 

i6o 


79 


SPELLING 

grammar 

intelligence 

Massachusetts 

officers 

grandeur 

intentionally 

material 

omitted 

grievous 

intercede 

mathematics 

omission 

guard 

irresistible 

mattress 

opinion 

guess 

its 

meant 

opportunity 

guidance 

it's 

messenger 

optimistic 

itself 

miniature 

original 

harass 

invitation 

minutes 

outrageous 

haul 

mischievous 

overrun 

having 

judgment 

Mississippi 

height 

. 

misspelled 

paid 

hesitancy 

knowledge 

momentous 

pantomime 

holy 

month 

parallel 

hoping 

laboratory 

murmur 

parliament 

huge 

ladies 

muscle 

particularly 

humorous 

laid 

mysterious 

partner 

hurriedly 

later 

pastime 

hundredths 

latter 

necessary 

peaceable 

hygienic 

lead 

negroes 

perceive 

led 

neither 

perception 

imaginary 

liable 

nickel 

peremptory 

imitative 

library 

nineteenth 

perform 

immediately 

lightning 

ninetieth 

perhaps 

immigration 

likely 

ninety 

permissible 

impromptu 

literature 

ninth 

perseverance 

imminent 

loneliness 

noticeable 

personal 

incidentally 

loose 

nowadays 

personnel 

incidents 

lose 

perspiration 

incredulous 

losing 

oblige 

persuade 

independence 

lying 

obstacle 

pertain 

indispensable 

occasion 

pervade 

induce 

maintain 

occasionally 

physical 

influence 

maintenance 

occur 

picnic 

infinite 

manual 

occurred 

picnicking 

instance 

manufacturer 

occurrence 

planned 

instant 

many 

occurring 

pleasant 

intellectual 

marriage 

o'clock 

politics 

i6i 


79 


politician 

really 

siege 

there 

possession 

recede 

similar 

therefore 

possible 

receive 

since 

they're 

practically 

recognize 

smooth 

thorough 

prairie 

recommend 

soliloquy 

thousandths 

precede 

reference 

sophomore 

till 

precedence 

referred 

speak 

to 

precedents 

regard 

specimen 

too 

preference 

region 

speech 

together 

preferred 

religion 

statement 

tragedy 

prejudice 

religious 

stationary 

track 

preparation 

repetition 

stationery 

tract 

primitive 

replies 

statue 

transferred 

principal 

representative 

stature 

tranquillity 

principle 

restaurant 

statute 

translate 

prisoner 

rheumatism 

steal 

treacherous 

privilege 

ridiculous 

steel 

treasurer 

probably 

stops 

tries 

proceed 

sacrilegious 

stopped 

trouble 

prodigy 

safety 

stopping 

truly 

profession 

sandwich 

stories 

Tuesday 

professor 

schedule 

stretch 

two 

proffered 

science 

strictly 

typical 

prohibition 

scream 

succeeds 

tyranny 

promissory 

screech 

successful 

prove 

seems 

summarize 

universally 

purchase 

seize 

superintendent  ""t'l 

pursue 

sense 

supersede 

usmg 

putting 

sentence 

sure 

usually 

separate 

surprise 

quantity 

sergeant 

syllable 

vacancy 

quiet 

several 

symmetrical 

vengeance 

quite 

shiftless 

vigilance 

quizzes 

shining 

temperament 

village 
villain 

shone 

tendency 

rapid 

shown 

than 

weak 

ready 

shriek 

their 

wear 

163 


79 


SPELLING 

weather 

wherever 

whose 

world 

Wednesday 

whether 

wintry 

writing 

week 

which 

wiry 

written 

weird 

whole 

within 

welfare 

wholly 

without 

your 

where 

who's 

women 

you're 

Note  I. —  The  following  words  have  more  than  one  cor- 
rect form,  the  one  given  here  being  preferred. 


abridgment          ^ 

check 

gaiety 

meter 

acknowledgment 

criticize 

gild 

mold 

analyze 

develop 

gipsy 

mustache 

ax 

development 

glamor 

odor 

boulder 

dulness 

good by 

program 

caliber 

endorse 

gray 

prolog 

catalog 

envelop 

inquire 

skilful 

center 

esthetic 

medieval 

theater 

Note  2. —  In  a  few  groups  of  w^ords  American  spelling 
and  English  spelling  difi'er.  American  spelling  gives 
preference  to  favor,  honor,  labor,  rumor;  English  spell- 
ing gives  preference  to  favour,  honour,  labour,  rumour. 
American  spelling  gives  preference  to  civilize,  apprize; 
defense,  pretense:  traveler,  zvoolen;  etc.  English  spell- 
ing gives  preference  to  civilise,  apprise;  defence,  pre- 
tence; traveller,  woollen;  etc. 


163 


80 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Manuscript 

80a.  Titles.  Center  a  title  on  the  page.  Capitalize  impor- 
tant words.  It  is  unnecessary  to  place  a  period  after 
a  title,  but  a  question  mark  or  exclamation  point  should 
be  used  when  one  is  appropriate.  Do  not  underscore 
the  title,  or  unnecessarily  place  it  in  quotation  marks. 
Leave  a  blank  line  under  the  title,  before  beginning  the 
body  of  the  writing. 

b.  Spacing.  Careful  spacing  is  as  necessary  as  punctua- 
tion. Place  writing  on  a  page  as  you  would  frame  a 
picture,  crowding  it  toward  neither  the  top  nor  the  bot- 
tom. Leave  liberal  margins.  Write  verse  as  verse ;  do 
not  give  it  equal  indention  or  length  of  line  with  prose. 
Connect  all  the  letters  of  a  word.  Leave  a  space  after 
a  word,  and  a  double  space  after  a  sentence.  Leave 
room  between  successive  lines,  and  do  not  let  the  loops 
of  letters  run  into  the  lines  above  or  below. 

C.  Handwriting.  Write  a  clear,  legible  hand,  rorm  a,  o, 
u,  n,  e,  i  properly.  Write  out  and  horizontally.  Avoid 
unnecessary  flourishes  in  capitals,  and  curlicues  at  the 
end  of  words.  Dot  your  i's  and  cross  your  t's:  not  with 
circles  or  long  eccentric  strokes,  but  simply  and  accu- 
rately. Let  your  originality  express  itself  not  in  ornate 
penmanship,  or  unusual  stationery,  or  literary  affecta- 
tions, but  in  the  force  and  keenness  of  your  ideas. 


164 


81 


CAPITALS 


Capitals 


Begin  with  a  capital  a  sentence,  a  line  of  poetry,  or  a 
quoted  sentence.  But  if  only  a  fragment  of  a  sen- 
tence is  quoted,  the  capital  should  be  omitted. 


Right 
Right 
Right 
Right 


ile  said,  "The  time  has  come." 
The  question  is.  Shall  the  bill  pass? 
They  said  they  would  "  not  take  no  for  an  answer.' 
"  The  good  die  first, 

And  they  whose  hearts  are  dry  as  summer  dust 

Burn  to  the  socket." —  Wordsworth. 


b.  Begin  proper  names,  and  all  important  words  used  as 
or  in  proper  names,  with  capitals.  Words  not  so  used 
should  not  begin  with  capitals. 

Right:  Mr.  George  K.  Rogers,  the  Principal  of  the  Urbana 
High  School,  a  college  president,  the  President  of  the  Senior 
Class,  a  senior,  the  Second  Corps  of  the  Army  of  Northern 
Virginia,  three  battalions  of  infantry,  the  Fourth  of  July, 
on  the  tenth  of  June,  the  House  of  Representatives,  an  as- 
sembly of  delegates,  a  Presbyterian  church,  the  separation  of 
church  and  state,  the  Baptist  Church,  the  Society  for  the 
Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals,  a  creek  known  as  Black 
Oak  Creek,  the  Republican  Party,  a  party  that  advocates  high 
tariff,  Rocky  Mountains,  The  Bible,  God,  The  Christian  Era, 
Wednesday,  in  the  summer,  living  in  the  South,  turning  south 
after  taking  a  few  steps  to  the  east,  one  morning,  O  dark- 
haired  Evening!  italic  type,  watt,  pasteurize,  herculean  effort. 

C.  Begin  an  adjective  which  designates  a  language  or  a 
race  with  a  capital. 

Right :  A  Norwegian  peasant,  Indian  arrowheads,  English  lit- 
erature, the  study  of  French. 


i6i 


82 


ITALICS 


d.  In   the   titles   of  books   or  themes   capitalize  the   first 

word   and   all   other   important   words.     Prepositions, 
conjunctions,  and  articles  are  usually  not  important. 

Right;  77a'  Enyhsh  Novel  ui  the  Time  of  Seott,  War  and 
Peaee,  Trmels  with  a  Donkey,  IVhen  I  Slept  under  the  Stars. 

e.  Miscellaneous  uses.     Capitalize  the  pronoun  I,  the  in- 

terjection O,  titles  that  accompany  a  name,  and  abbre- 
viations of  proper  names. 

Right:     Batte.-y  F,  150  F.  A.;  Mobile,  Ala.;  Dr.  Stebbins. 

Exercise  : 

1.  the  teacher  said,  "let  me  read  \ou  a  famous  soliloquy."    he 

began  :     "  to  be,  or  not  to  be :  that  is  the  question." 

2.  the  Chinese  laundry  man  does  not  write  out  his  lists  in  eng- 

lish. 

3.  the  la  fayette  tribune  says  that  a  Principal  of  a  School  has 

been  elected  to  congress. 

4.  mr.  woodson,  the  lecturer,  said  that  "the  title  of  a  book  may 

be  a  poem."  he  mentioned  Christmas  eve  on  lonesome  by 
John  fox,  jr. 

5.  i   like   architecture,     as   i   approached   the  british   museum,   i 

noticed  the  ionic  colonnade  that  runs  along  the  front,  the 
first  room  i  visited  was  the  one  filled  with  marbles  which 
lord  elgin  brought  from  the  parthenon  at  athens. 

Italics 

In  manuscript,  a  horizontal  line  drawn  under  a  letter 
or  word  is  a  sign  for  the  printer  to  use  italic  type. 

Ja.    Quoted  titles  of  books,  periodicals,  and  manuscripts  are 
usually  italicized. 

Right:  I  admire  Shakespeare's  Hamlet.  [The  italics  make  the 
reader  know  that  the  writer  means  Hamlet  the  play,  not  Ham- 
let the  man.] 

J  66 


82 


ITALICS 

Right:     John  Galsworthy's  novel,  The  Patrician,  appeared  in 
serial  form  ni  the  Atlantic  Monthly. 

Note  I. —  When  the  title  of  a  book  begins  with  an  article 
(a,  an,  or  the),  the  article  is  italicized.  But  the  before 
the  title  of  a  periodical  is  usually  not  italicized. 

Note  2. —  It  is  correct,  but  not  the  best  practice,  to  indi- 
cate the  titles  of  books  by  quotation  marks.  The  best 
method  is  to  use  italics  for  the  title  of  a  book,  and  quo- 
tation marks  for  chapters  or  subdivisions  of  the  same 
book.  Example :  See  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  Vol. 
II,  p.  427,  "  oModern  Architecture". 

b.   Words  from  a  foreign  language,  unless  they  have  been 
anglicized  by  frequent  use,  are  italicized. 

Right :     A    great   noise    announced    the    coming    of   the    enfant 

terrible. 
Right:     A  play  always  begins  in  medias  res. 

C.    The  names  of  ships  are  usually  italicized. 
Right:     The  Saxonia  will  sail  at  four  o'clock. 

d.  Words  taken  out  of  their  context  and  made  the  sub- 

ject of  discussion  are  italicized  or  placed  in  quotation 
marks. 

Right :     ^o  is  a  word  faded  and  colorless  from  constant  use. 
Right :     The  /  in  the  word  often  is  not  pronounced. 

e.  A  word  or  passage  requiring  great  emphasis   is   ital- 

icized. This  de\"ice  should  n(jt  l)e  used  to  excess. 
The  proper  way  to  secure  emphasis  is  to  have  good 
ideas,  and  to  use  emphatic  sentence  structure  in  ex- 
pressing them. 

J67 


83 

ABBREVIATIONS 

Exercise : 

1.  Ill   Vanity   Fair  Thackeray  heads  one  chapter  How  to  Live 

Well  on  Nothing  a  Year. 

2.  Auf  wiedersehcn  was  his  parting  word.     He  had  informed  me, 

sub  rosa  of  course,  that  he  was  going  to  Bremen. 

3.  The  battle  between  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac  revolution- 

ized naval  warfare.  How  far  back  it  seems  to  the  days 
when  Decatur  set  fire  to  the  old  Philadelphia ! 

4.  Her  They  say's  are  as  plenteous  as  rabbits  in  Australia. 

5.  A  writer  in  the  Century  Magazine  says  the  public  may  know 

better  than  an  author  what  the  title  of  his  book  should  be. 
Dickens,  for  example,  called  one  of  his  works  The  Post- 
humous Papers  of  the  Pickwick  Club. 

Abbreviations 

83a.  In  ordinary  writing  avoid  abbreviations.  The  follow- 
ing, however,  are  always  correct:  Mr.,  Messrs.,  Dr., 
or  St.  (Saint),  before  proper  names;  B.C.  or  A.  D., 
when  necessary  to  avoid  confusion,  after  a  date;  and 
No.  or  $  when  followed  by  numerals. 

In  ordinary  writing  spell  out 

All  titles,  except  those  listed  above. 
Names  of  months,  states,  countries. 
Christian  names,  unless  initials  are  used  instead. 
Names  of  weights  and  measures,  except  in  statistics. 
Street,  Avenue,   Road,  Railroad,   Park,   Fort,   Moun- 
tain, Company,  Brothers,  Manufacturing,  etc. 

In  ordinary  writing,  instead  of  &  write  and;  for  vis. 
write  namely;  for  i.  e.,  write  that  is;  for  c.  g.  write 
for  example ;  for  a.  m.  and  p.  m.  write  in  the  morning, 
this  afternoon,  tomorrozv  evening,  Saturday  night. 
Do  not  use  etc.  (et  cetera)  when  it  can  be  avoided. 
168 


84 


NUMBERS 

b.  In  business  correspondence,  technical  writing,  tabula- 
tions, footnotes,  and  bibliographies,  or  wherever 
brevity  is  essential,  other  abbreviations  may  be  used. 
Even  here,  short  words  should  not  be  abbreviated: 
Alaska,  Hawaii,  Idaho,  Iowa,  Maine,  Ohio,  Samoa, 
Utah,  March,  April,  May,  June,  July. 

Exercise : 

1.  Mr.  Gregg  &■  Dr.  Appleton  were  rivals. 

2.  Harris  lacked  t)ut  one  of  having  a  grade  of  one  hundred ; 

i.e.,  he  had  the  two  O's  already. 

3.  His  inheritance  ta.x  was  three  thousand  $.     In  Apr.  he  moved 

from  Portland,  Me.,  to  Sandusky,  O. 
4;  Prof.  Kellogg  came  down  Beech  St.  at  a  quarter  before  eight 

every  a.m. 
5.  A  No.  of  old  friends  visited  them  on  special  occasions;  e.g., 

on  their  wedding  anniversaries. 

Numbers 

la.  It  is  customary  to  use  figures  for  dates,  for  the  street 
numbers  in  addresses,  for  reference  to  the  pages  of  a 
book,  and  for  statistics. 

Right:     June     16,     1920.     804    Chalmers    Street.     See 
Chapter  4,  especially  page  79. 

Note. —  It  is  desirable  not  to  write  st,  nd,  or  fli  after  the 
day  of  the  month  if  the  year  is  designated  also.  Right: 
March  3,  1919  (not  March  3rd,  1919). 

b.  Figures  are  used  for  numbers  which  cannot  be  ex- 
pressed in  a  few  words.  The  dollar  sign  and  figures 
are  used  with  complicated  sums  of  money. 

Right :     The  farm  comprised  3260  acres.     The  popula- 
tion of  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  was  248,381  in  1910.     He 

169 


85 

SYLLABICATION 

earned  $437  while  attending  hchuol.     The  cost  of  the  im- 
provement was  $1,940.25. 

C.  In  other  instances  than  those  specified  in  a  and  b,  num- 
bers as  a  rule  should  be  written  out.  (This  rule  ap- 
phes  to  numbers  and  to  sums  of  money  which  can  be 
expressed  in  a  few  words,  to  sums  of  money  less  than 
one  dollar,  and  to  ages  and  time  of  day.) 
Right:  The  box  weighs  two  hundred  pounds.  Xerxes 
had  an  army  of  three  million  men.  I  enclose  seventy- 
five  cents.  He  owed  twelve  hundred  dollars.  Grand- 
father Toland  is  eighty-seven  years  old.  The  train  is 
due  at  a  quarter  past  three. 

Exercise : 

1.  For  70  pounds  of  excess  baggage  I  had  to  pay  $1.00. 

2.  At  2  o'clock  Rice  gave  him  the  2nd  capsule. 

3.  The  letter  was  sent  from  twenty-one  Warner  St.,  November 

the  eleventh,  nineteen  hundred  and  eighteen. 

4.  Knox  earned  $5  a  day,  he  said  ;  hut  they  paid  him  only  $0.75. 

5.  At  40  he  owned  a  2,000  acre   farm  and  had  an   income  of 

$10,000  a  year. 

Syllabication 

85a.  When  a  word  is  broken  at  the  end  of  a  line,  use  a  hy- 
phen there.  Do  not  place  a  hyphen  at  the  beginning 
of  the  second  line. 

b.  Words  are  divided  only  between  syllables:  depart- 
ment, dis-charge,  absurd,  university,  pro-fessor  (not 
depa-rtnicnt,  disc-harge,  abs-urd,  unive-rsity,  prof- 
essor). 

C,  Monosyllabic  words  are  never  divided:  which,  through, 
dipped,  speak  (not  wh-ich,  thr-ough,  dip-ped,  spe-ak). 

170 


SYLLABICATION 

d.  A  consonant  at  the  junction  of  two  syllables  usually 
goes  with  the  second:  rectpro-cate,  ordi-nance,  inti- 
mate (not  reciproc-ate,  ordin-ance,  intim-ate).  Some- 
times two  consonants  are  equivalent  to  a  single  letter : 
falli-hle,  photo-graph  (not  fallih-le,  photog-raph). 

6.  Two  or  more  consonants  at  the  junction  of  syllables 
are  themselves  divided:  en-ter-prise,  com-mis-sary,  in- 
car-nate  (not  ent-erpr-ise,  comm-iss-ary,  inc-arn-ate). 

f .  A  prefix  or  a  suffix  is  usually  set  off  from  the  rest  of 
the  word  regardless  of  the  rule  for  consonants  be- 
tween syllables:  e.v-empt,  dis-appoiut.  snuj-ing,  pro- 
gress-ive.  But  when  a  final  consonant  is  doubled  before 
a  suffix  the  additional  consonant  goes  with  the  suffix: 
trip-ping,  permit-ted,  omission. 

g.  The  best  usage  avoids  separating  one  or  two  letters 
(unless  in  prefixes  like  un  or  suffixes  like  ly)  from  the 
rest  of  the  word:  achieve-ment,  enor-mous,  remem- 
bered, dyspepsia  (not  a-chievement,  e-normous,  remem- 
ber-ed,  dyspepsi-a). 

h.  The  first  part  of  a  divided  word  should  not  be  ludicrous 
or  misleading:  dogmo-tize,  croeo-dile,  de-cadence, 
mctri-cal,  gonl-la  (not  dog-matice,  croc-odile,  deca- 
dence, met-rical,  go-rilla). 

Exercise : 

Place  a  hyphen  between  each  pair  of  syllables  in  each  word  of 
more  than  one  syllable:  thoughtful,  hurroiving,  thorough, 
chimney,  brought,  helped,  harshnesses,  zvhich,  murmur,  super- 
stition, ground,  symmetry,  ripped,  compartment,  disalloiv,  obey, 
opinion,  opportune,  aggressive,  intellectually,  complicated,  en- 
cyclopedia, ivrought,  electricity,  abstraction,  syllabication,  punc- 
tuation, frustrate,  except,  substituting,  distressful. 

171 


86 


OUTLINES 

Outlines 

Three  kinds  of  outlines  are  illustrated  in  this  article: 
(a)  the  Topic  Outline,  (b)  the  Sentence  Outline,  and 
(c)  the  Paragraph  Outhne. 

A  topic  outline  consists  of  headings  (nouns  or  phrases 
containing  nouns)  which  indicate  the  important  ideas 
in  a  composition,  and  their  relation  to  each  other. 
Conform  to  the  following  model: 

The  Lumber  Problem 

Theme:  The  decHne  of  our  lumber  supply  requires  that  we 
shall  take  steps  toward  reforesting,  conservation,  and  the  use  of 
substitutes  for  wood. 

I     The  Depletion  of  our  forests 
A     Former  abundance 

B     Present    scarcity    (especially    walnut,    white    pine, 
oak) 

II     The  Causes  of  the  depletion 
A     Great  demand 

1  For  building 

2  For  industrial  expansion   (ties,  posts,  etc.) 

3  Fuel,  and  other  minor  uses 
B     Wasteful  methods  of  forestry 

III     The  Remedy 

A     Reforestation 

1  Planting  by  individuals 

2  Planting  by  the  states 

3  Extension    of    the    present    National    Forest 

Reserves 
B    The  prevention  of  waste 

1  In  fires,  by  insects,  etc. 

2  In  cutting  and  sawing 

3  In  by-products   (sawdust,  odd  lengths,  etc.) 

\^2 


86 


OUTLINES 

C    The  use  of  substitutes  for  wood  (concrete,  steel, 

brick,  stone,  etc.) 

b.  A  sentence  outline  is  expressed  in  complete  sentences. 
Conform  to  the  following  model: 

The  Lumber  Problem 

I     The  depletion  of  our  forests  is  evident  when  one  compares 
A     the  former  abundance,  with 

B    the  liresent  scarcity    (of   walnut,  white  pine,  and 
oak,  especially). 

II    The  causes  of  the  depletion  are : 
A     the  great  demand 

1  for  building, 

2  for  industrial  expansion   (ties,  posts,  etc.), 

3  for  fuel  and  other  minor  uses;  and 
B     wasteful  methods  of  forestry. 

Ill     The  remedies  for  the  depletion  are: 
A     reforestation 

1  by  individuals, 

2  by  the  states, 

3  by  extension  of  the  present  National  Forest 

Reserves ; 
B    the  prevention  of  waste 

1  in  fires,  by  insects,  etc., 

2  in  cutting  and  sawing, 

3  in  by-products    (sawdust,  odd  lengths,  etc.)'; 

and 
C    the  use  of  substitutes   for  wood    (concrete,  steel, 
brick,  stone,  etc.). 

C.  A  paragraph  outline  is  a  series  of  sentences  summariz- 
ing the  thought  of  successive  paragraphs  in  a  com- 
position.    Conform   to   the  following  model: 


86 

OUTLINES 

The  Disagreeable   Optimist 

1.  The  present  age  may  be  called  an  era  of  efficiency,  prosperity, 

and  optnnisni,  snice  efficiency  has  produced  prosperity,  and 
this  in  turn  has  produced  '"  optimism  " —  a  word  recurrent 
in  common  literature  and  conversation. 

2.  The    optimist    is    often    not    natural    or    sincere,    because   his 

thoughts  are  centered  on  keeping  up  an  appearance  of 
being  happy. 

3.  He  is  intrusive,  for  he  thrusts  comfort  upon  those  who  wish 

to  mourn,  and  repeats  irritatuig  epigrams  and  poems  about 
cheer. 

4.  He  is  undiscriminating,  in  that  he  prescribes  the  same  rem- 

edy, "  good  cheer,"  for  everybody  and  for  every  condition. 

5.  He  is  sometimes  harmful,  because  he  tells  us  that  the  world 

is  going  well,  when  conditions  need  changing,  and  need 
changing  badly. 

d.  Mechanical  details.  Indent  headings  that  are  coordi- 
nate (that  is,  of  equal  vakie)  an  equal  distance  from 
the  margin.  One  inch  to  the  right  is  a  good  distance 
for  successive  subordinate  headings.  Use  Roman  nu- 
merals, capital  letters,  Arabic  numerals,  and  small  let- 
ters to  indicate  the  comparative  rank  of  ideas.  When  a 
heading  runs  over  one  line,  use  hanging  indention ;  that 
is,  do  not  allow  the  second  line  to  run  back  to  the  left- 
hand  margin,  but  indent  it.  !Make  the  numerals  and 
letters  (/,  A.  etc.)  stand  out  prominently.  The  title 
of  a  theme  should  not  be  given  a  numeral  or  letter. 

Faulty  indention : 

Sources  of  energy  which  may  be  utilized  when  the  coal  supply 
is  exhausted  are 

I  Rivers  and  streams,  especially  in  mountain 
districts 

n  The  tides 
HI  The  heat  of  the  sun 

174 


86 

OUTLINES 

Correct  hanging  indention ; 

Sources  of  energy  which  may  be  utiUzed  when  the  coal  supply 
is  exhausted  are 

I  Rivers  and  streams,  especially  in  mountain 
districts 
II  The  tides 
III  The  heat  of  the  sun 

e.  Ideas  parallel  in  thought  should  be  expressed  in  paral- 
lel form.  Nouns  and  phrases  including  noiuis  are 
ordinarily  used. 

Faulty  parallelism : 
Advantages  of  a  garden: 

1  Profitable 

2  It  affords  good  exercise 

3  Gives  pleasure 

Right : 
Advantages  of  a  garden: 

1  Profit 

2  Exercise 

3  Pleasure 

f.  Avoid  faulty  coordination  (giving  two  ideas  equal 
rank,  when  one  should  be  subordinated  to  the  other) 
and  vice  versa,  avoid  faulty  subordination. 

Faulty  coordination : 

How  Seeds  Scatter 

I  By  Wind 
II  Some  Seeds  provided  with  parachutes 

III  Others  light,  and  easily  blown  about 

IV  By  Water 
V  By  Animals 

I7S 


86 

OUTLINES 

Right : 

How  Seeds  Scatter 

I  By  Wind 

A  Some  seeds  provided  with  parachutes 
B  Others  light,  and  easily  blown  about 
II  By  Water 
III  By  Animals 

g.  Avoid  detailed  subordination.  Especially  avoid  a 
single  subheading  when  it  can  be  joined  to  the  pre- 
ceding line,  or  omitted. 

Too  detailed ; 

A  The  McClellan  Orchard 

1  Situation 

a  On  a  northern  slope 

2  Nature  of  soil 

a  Sandy 

3  Kind  of  fruit 

a  Apple 
b  Cherry 

Right : 

A  The  McClellan  Orchard 

1.  Situation :  a  northern  slope 

2.  Nature  of  soil:  sandy 

3-  Kind  of  fruit:  apple  and  cherry 

Exercise : 

I.  Give  a  title  to  an  outline  which  shall  include  the  following 
topics.     Group   the   topics   under   two  main   headings,   and 
give  the  headings  names. 
Uses  of  the  Grape 
The  Vine 
The  Fruit  Itself 
How  Marketed 
How  Cultivated 

176 


87 

LETTERS 

2,  Place   in   order   the   sentences    of   the    following   outline    on 

"Why  Keep  a  Diary?'  Subordinate  some  of  the  headings 
to  others. 

A  diary  affords  great  satisfaction  in  future  years. 

We  sometimes  record  in  a  diary  information  which 
proves  useful. 

A  few  lines  a  day  will  suffice. 

A  diary  is  not  hard  to  keep. 

We  may  find  time  for  writing  in  our  diary  if  we  do 
not  vygaste  time  at  the  table  or  on  newspapers. 

We  may  write  in  our  diary  just  before  we  go  to  bed. 

A  diary  will  bring  back  the  past. 

We  all  have  some  moments  to  kill. 

A  diary  gives  us  pleasure  even  in  the  present. 

3.  Place    in   order    the    headings    of    the    following    outline    on 

"  Ulysses  S.  Grant."  Subordinate  some  of  the  headings  to 
others. 

Obscurity  in  1861 

Prominence  in  1865 

Patience 

President 

General 

Perseverance  and  Resolution 

Character 

The  Turning  Point  in  His  Career 

Letters 

The  parts  of  a  letter  are  the  heading,  the  inside  ad- 
dress, the  greeting,  the  body,  the  close,  and  the  signa- 
ture. For  these  parts  good  use  prescribes  definite  forms, 
which  we  may  sometimes  ignore  in  personal  letters,  btit 
must  rigidly  observe  in  formal  or  business  letters. 

87a.    The  heading  of  a  letter  should  give  the  full  address  of 
the  writer  and  the  date  of  writing.     Do  not  abbreviate 

short  words,  or  omit  Street  or  Avenue. 

177 


87 

LETTERS 

Objectionable;     #15  Hickory,  Omaha. 
Right:     15  Hickory  Street,  Omaha,  Nebraska. 
Objectionable:    4/12/19;  io-28-'i6;  May  2nd,  1910. 
Right;     April  12,  19x9;  October  28,  191b;  May  2,  1910. 
The  following  headings  are  correct: 

106  East  Race  Street, 
Red  Oak,  Iowa, 
August  4,  1916. 

423  Michigan  Avenue 
Chicago,  Illinois 
May  20,  1 9 18 

Prescott,  Arizona,  June  i,  1920. 

]\TQ|-g  —  In  personal  letters  the  heading  may  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  end,  below  the  signature,  at  the  left- 
hand  side.  But  it  must  not  be  so  divided  that  the 
street  address  will  appear  in  one  place  and  the  town 
and  state  in  another. 

The  "closed"  form  of  punctuation  (the  use  of 
punctuation  at  the  ends  of  the  lines)  is  best  until  the 
student  learns  what  is  correct.  Afterward,  the  adop- 
tion of  the  "  open  "  form  becomes  purely  a  matter  of 
individual  taste  and  not  a  matter  of  carelessness  or 
ignorance. 

b.  An  inside  address  and  a  greeting  are  required  in  busi- 
ness letters.  Personal  letters  contain  the  greeting, 
but  may  omit  the  inside  address,  or  may  supply  it  at 
the  end  of  the  letter. 

The  Jeffrey  Chemical  Works, 
510  Marion  Street, 

Norfolk,  Virginia. 

Gentlemen : 

178 


LETTERS 


87 


Mr.  Joseph  N.  Kellogg 
141 1  Lake  Street 
Cleveland,  Ohio 
Dear  Mr.  Kellogg: 

Secretary  of  Rice  Institute, 

Houston,  Texas. 
My  dear  Sir* 

Greetings  used  in  business  letters  are: 
My  dear  Sir : 
My  dear  Madam: 
My  dear  Mr.  Fisher; 
Dear  Sir: 

Greetings  used  in  personal  letters  are : 
My  dear  Miss  Brown  : 
Dear  Professor  Ward : 
Dear  Jones, 


Sir: 
Sirs : 

Gentlemen : 
Ladies ; 


Dear  Mrs.  Vincent, 
Dear  Robert, 
Dear  Olive. 


"  My  dear  Miss  Brown "  is  more  ceremonious  than 
"  Dear  Miss  Brown  ".  As  a  rule,  the  more  famiUar 
the  letter,  the  shorter  the  greeting. 

A  colon  follows  the  greeting  if  the  letter  is  formal  or 
long;  a  comma,  if  the  letter  is  familiar  or  in  the  nature 
of  a  note. 

Both  inside  address  and  greeting  begin  at  the  left-hand 
margin.  The  body  of  the  letter  begins  on  the  line 
below  the  greeting,  and  is  indented  as  much  as  an  ordi- 
nary paragraph    ( about  an  inch ) . 

C.   The  body  of  a  letter  should  be  written  in  correct  style. 
I.  Do  not  omit  pronouns,  or  write  a  "  telegraphic  style  ". 

Wrong:     Just  received  yours  of  the  21st,  and  in  reply  would 
say  your  order  has  been  filled  and  shipped. 
179 


87 


LETTERS 

Right:  I  have  your  letter  of  March  twenty-first.  Your  or- 
der was  promptly  tilled  and  shipped. 

2.  The  idea  that  it  is  immodest  to  tise  /  is  a  superstition. 
Undue  repetition  of  /  is  of  course  awkward;  but  entire 
avoidance  of  it  is  sihy. 

3.  Use  simple  language.  Say  "  your  letter  " ;  not  "  your 
kind  favor  ",  or  "  yours  duly  received  ",  or  "  yours  of 
the  2ist  is  at  hand  ". 

4.  Avoid  "  begging  "  expressions  which  you  obviously  do 
not  mean,  especially  the  hackneyed  "  beg  to  advise  ". 

Wrong:  Received  yours  of  the  3rd  instant,  and  beg  to  ad- 
vise we  are  out  of  stock. 

Right:  We  received  your  order  of  March  3.  We  find  that 
we  have  no  more  dining-room  chairs  B  2-4-6  in  stock. 

Wrong :     I  beg  to  enclose  a  booklet. 

Right :     I  enclose  a  booklet. 

Wrong :     Permit  us  to  say  that  prices  have  been  advanced. 

Right :     The  prices  on  our  goods  have  been  advanced. 

5.  Avoid  the  formula  "  please  find  enclosed ".  The 
reader  will  find  what  is  enclosed ;  if  you  use  "  please  ", 
let  it  refer  to  what  the  reader  shall  do  with  what  is 
enclosed. 

Wrong:     Enclosed  please  find    10  cents,  for  which   send  me 

Bulletin  58. 
Right :     I  enclose  ten  cents,  for  which  please  send  me  Bulletin 

58. 

6.  Avoid    unnecessary    commercial    slang:     On    the    job, 

A-i  service,  O.  K.,  your  ad,  popular-priced  line,  this 
party,  as  per  schedule. 

7.  Get  to  the  important  idea  quickly.  In  applying  for  a 
position,   do   not  beat   around  the  bush,   or  say   you 

180 


87 


LETTERS 

"  wish  to  apply  "  or  "  would  apply  ".  Begin,  "  I  make 
application  for  .  .  .",  "  kindly  consider  my  application 
for  .  .  .",  or  "  I  apply  .  .  ." 

8.  Group  your  ideas  logically.  Do  not  scatter  informa- 
tion. A  letter  applying  for  a  position  might  consist 
of  three  paragraphs:  Personal  qualifications  (age, 
health,  education,  etc. )  ;  Experience  (nature  of  posi- 
tions, dates,  etc.)  ;  References  (names,  business  or 
profession,  exact  street  address).  Finish  one  group  of 
ideas  before  passing  to  the  next. 

g.  Do  not  monotonously  close  all  letters  with  a  sentence 
beginning  with  a  participle :  Hoping  to  hear  from 
you  .  .  .  ,  Asking  your  cooperation  .  .  .  ,  Azvaiting 
your  further  favors  .  .  .  ,  Trusting  this  zvill  be  satis- 
factory .  .  .  ,  Wishing  yon  .....  Thanking  you  .... 
The  independent  form  of  the  verb  is  more  emphatic 
(see  42)  ;  I  hope  to  hear  from  you  .  .  .  ,  We  await 
further  orders  .  .  .  ,   We   ask  cooperation  .... 

I.  The  close  should  be  consistent  in  tone  with  the  greet- 
ing. It  is  written  on  a  separate  line,  beginning  near 
the  middle  of  the  page,  and  is  followed  by  a  comma. 
Only  the  first  word  is  capitalized.  Preceding  expres- 
sions like  "I  am",  "I  remain",  "As  ever'",  (if  they 
are  used  at  all)  belong  in  the  body  of  the  letter. 

Right :     I  thank  you  for  your  courtesy,  and  remain 

Yours  sincerely, 
Robert  Blair 

Right :     I  shall  be  grateful  for  any  further  information  you  can 
give  me. 

Yours  truly. 

Florence  Mitchell 


87 


LETTERS 

la  business  letters  the  following  forms  are  used : 

Yours  truly, 
Very  truly  yours, 
Yours  respectfully, 

In  personal  letters  the  following  are  used : 

Yours  truly. 
Yours  sincerely, 
Sincerely  yours, 
Cordially  yours, 

e.  The  outside  address  should  follow  one  of  the  forms 
given  below: 


R.    E.    Stearns 

=,12   Chapel  Hill  St. 

Durham,  N.  C. 


Mr.  Donald  Kemp 
3314  Salem  Street 
Baltimore 
Maryland 


Bentley     Davis 
906    Park    Street 
Ogden,    Utah 


Rogers,  Mead,  and  Company 
2401  Eighth  Avenue 
Los  Angeles 
California 


182 


87 


LETTERS 

Note. —  An  abbreviation  in  an  address  is  followed  by  a 
period.  Punctuation  is  also  correct,  but  not  necessary, 
after  every  line  (a  period  after  the  last  line,  and  a 
comma  after  the  others). 

A  married  woman  is  ordinarily  addressed  thus :  Mrs. 
George  H.  Turner.  But  a  title  belonging  to  the  hus- 
band should  not  be  transferred  to  the  wife.  Wrong: 
Mrs.  Dr.  Jenkins,  Mrs.  Professor  Ward.  Right:  Mrs. 
Jenkins,  Mrs.  Ward.  Reverend  Mr.  Beecher  is  a  cor- 
rect address  for  a  minister;  not  "Rev.  Beecher".  If 
a  title  of  respect  is  placed  before  a  name  (Professor, 
Dr.,  Honorable),  it  is  undesirable  to  place  another  title 
after  the  name  (Secretary,  M.  D.,  Ph.D.,  Principal, 
Esq.). 

f.  Miscellaneous  directions.     Writing  should  be  centered 

on  the  page,  not  crowded  against  the  top,  or  against 
one  side.  Letter  paper  so  folded  that  each  sheet  is  a 
little  book  of  four  pages  is  best  for  personal  correspond- 
ence. Both  sides  of  such  paper  may  be  written  on. 
The  pages  may  be  written  on  in  any  order  which  will  be 
convenient  to  the  reader.  An  order  like  that  of  the 
pages  in  a  printed  book   (i,  2,  3,  4)   is  best. 

Business  letters  are  usually  written  on  one  side  only 
of  flat  sheets  Sh  by  11  inches  in  size.  The  sheet  is 
folded  once  horizontally  in  the  middle,  and  twice  in  the 
other  direction,  for  insertion  in  the  envelope. 

g.  A  business  letter  should  have,  in  general,  the  following 

form: 


183 


87 


LETTERS 

15 16  South  Garrison  Avenue, 
Carthage,    ^Jissouri, 
Ma.v  14,  1918. 
J.  E.  Pratt,  General  Superintendent, 

The  Southwest  Missouri  Railroad  Company, 
10 12  North  Madison  Street, 
Webb  City,  Missouri. 
Dear  Sir: 

I  apply  for  a  position  as  mechanic's  assistant  in  the  electrical 
department  of  your  shops.  1  am  nineteen  years  old,  and  in  good 
physical  condition.  On  June  6  I  shall  graduate  from  Carthage 
High  School,  and  after  that  date  I  can  begin  work  immediately. 
1  have  had  no  practical  experience  in  electrical  work.  But 
I  have  for  two  years  made  a  special  study  of  physics,  in  and  out 
of  school.  I  worked  last  summer  in  the  local  garage  of  Mr. 
R.  S.  Bryant.  In  addition.  I  have  become  familiar  with  tools 
in  my  workshop  at  home,  so  that  I  both  know  and  like  ma- 
chinery. 

For  statements  as  to  my  character  and  ability,  I  refer  you  tf> 
R.  S.  Bryant,  Manager  Bryant's  Garage;  Mr.  Frank  Darrow 
(lawyer),  (x)2  Ninth  Street;  W.  C.  Barnes.  Superintendent  of 
Schools;  and  C.  W.  Oldham,  Principal  of  the  High  School  — 

all  of  this  city. 

Respectfully  yours, 

Howard  Rolfe 

h.  Formal  notes  and  replies  are  written  in  the  third  person 
(avoiding  /,  my,  me,  you,  your)  and  permit  no  abbre- 
viations except  Mr.,  Mrs.,  Dr. 

Mrs.  Clarence  King  requests  the  company  of 
Mr.  Charles  Eliot  at  dinner  on  Friday. 
April  the  twenty-fourth,  at  six  o'clock. 

102  Pearl  Street, 

April  the  seventeenth. 

In  accepting  an  invitation,  the  writer  should  repeat  the 
day  and  hour  mentioned,  in  order  to  avoid  a  misunder- 


88 


PARAGRAPHS 

standing;  in  declinnig  an  invitation,  only  the  day  need 
be  mentioned.  The  \erb  used  m  the  reply  should  be  in 
the  present  tense ,  not  '"  will  be  pleased  to  accept  ",  or 
"regrets  that  he  will  be  unable  to  accept";  but  "is 
pleased  to  accept  ",  or  "  regrets  that  circumstances  pre- 
vent his  accepting  ". 

]\Ir.  Charles  Eliot  gladly  accepts  the 
invitation  of  Mrs.  King  to  dinner  on 
Friday,  April  the  twenty-fourth,  at 
six  o'clock. 

514  Poplar  Avenue, 

April  the  eighteenth. 

Paragraphs 

88a.  The  first  lines  of  paragraphs  are  uniformly  indented,  in 
manuscript,  about  an  inch ;  in  print,  somewhat  less. 
After  a  sentence,  the  remainder  of  a  line  should  not  be 
left  blank,  except  at  the  end  of  a  paragraph. 

0.  The  length  of  a  paragraph  is  ordinarily  from  fifty  to 
three  hundred  v^^ords,  depending  on  the  importance 
or  complexity  of  the  thought.  In  exposition,  the 
paragraphs  should  be  long  enough  to  develop  every  idea 
thoroughly.  Scrappy  expository  paragraphs  arouse  the 
suspicion  that  the  writer  is  incoherent,  or  that  he  has  not 
given-  sufficient  thought  to  the  subject.  Short  para- 
graphs are  permissible,  and  even  desirable,  in  the  follow- 
ing cases : 

I.  In  a  formal  introduction  to  the  main  body  of  a 
discourse,  or  in  the  formal  conclusion.  (In  some 
instances  the  paragraph  may  consist  of  a  single 
sentence.) 

i8S 


88 

TARAGRAPHS 

2.  In  the  body  of  a  composition,  when  a  brief  logical 
transition  between  two  longer  paragraphs  is  neces- 
sary. 

3.  In  short  compositions  on  complex  subjects,  where 
space  forbids  the  development  of  each  thought  on 
a  proper  scale.  (But,  as  a  rule,  the  student 
should  limit  his  subject  to  a  few  simple  ideas,  each 
of   which   can   be   developed    fully.) 

4.  In  newspapers,  where  brevity  and  emphasis  are 
required.  (But  the  student  should  not  take  the 
journalistic  style  as  a  model.) 

5.  In  description  or  narration  meant  to  be  vivid, 
vigorous,  or  rapid. 

6.  In  dialogue. 

C.    In  representing  dialogue,  each  speech,  no  matter  how 
short,  is  placed  in  a  separate  paragraph. 

Right : 

"Listen!"  he  said.  "There  was  a  noise  outside.  Didn't 
you  hear  it?  " 

"  No,"  I  whispered.  It  was  dark  in  the  room,  except  for  a 
faint  Hght  at  the  window,  and  I  felt  my  way  cautiously  to  his 
side.     "What  is  it?     Burglars?" 

"  I  believe  it  is." 

"  I  can't  hear  anything." 

"  Listen  !     There  it  is  again." 

"  Pshaw !  "  I  had  to  laugh  aloud.  "  Thompson's  cow  has 
got  into  the  garden  again." 

Note  that  a  slight  amount  of  descriptive  matter  may  be 

included  in  a  paragraph  with  the  direct  discourse,  the 

only  requirement  being  that  a  change  of  speaker  shall 

be  indicated  by  a  new  paragraph. 

186 


89 


PARAGRAPHS 

When  special  emphasis  is  desired,  a  quotation  may  be 
detached   from  a  preceding  introductory   statement. 

Right :     The  speaker  turned  gravely  about,  and  facing  the  front 
row,  he  said  slowly  and  solemnly : 

"  Small  boys  should  be  seen  and  not  heard." 

In  exceptiorjal  cases  a  long,  rapid-fire  dialogue  may,  for 
purposes  of  compression,  be  placed  in  one  paragraph. 
Dashes  should  ihen  be  used  before  successive  quota- 
tions to  indicate   a  change  of   speaker. 

Omissions  from  a  dialogue  (as  when  only  one  side  of  a 
telephone  conversation  is  reported),  long  pauses,  and 
the  unfinished  part  of  interrupted  statements,  may  be 
represented  by  a  short  row  of  dots. 

Exercise : 

Arrange  in  paragraphs,  and  insert  quotation  marks : 

1.  Help !  I  cried,  rolling  over  in  the  narrow  crevasse,  and  won- 

dering dazedly  how  far  1  had  fallen  through  the  snow.  A 
muffled  voice  came  from  above :  We'll  have  a  rope  down 
to  you  in  a  minute.  Tie  that  bottle  of  brandy  on  the  end 
of  it,  I  suggested,  and  it'll  come  faster.  [The  student  will 
here  insert  a  sentence  of  his  own  to  complete  the  dialogue.] 

2.  Good   morning,   James,   said   the   deacon,    suspiciously.     How 

are  you?  and  where  are  you  going?  I'ni  all  right,  answered 
the  boy,  and  I'm  goin'  down  to  the  creek.  As  he  spoke,  he 
tried  to  hide  something  bulky  underneath  his  coat.  You 
oughtn't  to  go  fishing  on  Sunday.  [Add  another  sentence 
to  finish  the  dialogue.] 

MISCELLANEOUS  EXERCISE 

The  following  sentences  illustrate  errors  in  the  use 
of  capitals,  italics,  numbers,  abbreviations,  etc.  Make 
necessary   changes. 

187 


89 


MISCELLANEOUS  EXERCISE 

1.  1  met  him  at  kaiisas  city  at  a  dinner  of  the  eonnnercial  club. 

2.  The    senate    and    the    house    of    representatives    are    the    two 

branches  of  congress. 

3.  In  today's  Chicago  herald  the  union  pacific  railroad  advertises 

reduced  rates  to  yellowstone  park  and  the  northwest. 

4.  There  are  30  men   in   each   section   in  chemistry,   but  only  25 

in  each  section  in  french. 

5.  Early  in  pres.  wilson's  administration   troops  crossed   the   rio 

grande  river.     Pres.  Carranza  protested. 

6.  In  nineteen  ten   the   population  of   new  york  city    (including 

suburbs)  was  4,766,883. 

7.  Send  the  moving  van  to  thirty  walnut  street  at  eiglit  o'clock. 

8.  I   like  Jane  Austen's   Pride  and   Prejudice  better  than  George 

Eliot's  Adam  Bede. 

9.  May  I  call  for  you  about  7:30  p.m.,  Miss  Reynolds? 

10.  The  note  draws  G  per  cent  interest,  and  is  payable  Tan.  ist,  1921. 

11.  He  will  remain  in  town  until  Apr.  20th,  and  will  then  go  away 

for  the  Summer.     He  is  going  abroad  to  study  the  Spanish 
and  italian  languages. 

12.  Grays  elegy  in  a  country  churchyard  is  perhaps  the  best  known 

poem  in  english  lifernturc. 

13.  Enclosed  please  find  $4,  for  which  send  me  the  New  Republic 

for  one  year. 

14.  In  reply  to  yours  of  3-7-18  wish  to  advise  that  we  are  out  of 

stock. 

15.  I   enclose  $0.10   for   a   copy   nf   li-dletin    #314   of   the   dept.   of 

-Agriculture.     Thanking    you,    I    remain yours    Re- 
spectively   


188 


90 


PUNCTUATION 

Punctuation  is  not  used  for  its  own  sake.  It  is  used 
in  writing  as  gestures,  pauses,  and  changes  of  voice  are 
used  in  speaking  —  to  add  force  or  to  reveal  the  pre- 
crse  relationship  of  thoughts.  The  tendency  at  present 
is  against  the  lavish  use  of  punctuation.  This  does  not 
mean,  however.,  that  one  may  do  as  he  pleases.  In 
minor  details  of  punctuation  there  is  room  for  individual 
preference,  but  in  essential  principles  all  trustworthy 
writers  agree. 

The  Period 

la.    Place  a  period  after  a  complete  declarative  or  impera- 
tive sentence. 

b.    Do  not  separate  part  of  a  sentence  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence  by  means  of  a  period.     (See  i.) 

Wrong:  He  denied  the  accusation.  As  e\ery  one  expected 
him  to  do. 

Right ;  He  denied  the  accusation,  as  every  one  expected  him 
to  do. 

Wrong:  Anderson  wrote  good  editorials.  The  best  that  ap- 
peared in  any  paper  in  the  city. 

Right :  Anderson  wrote  good  editorials,  the  best  that  ap- 
peared in  any  paper  in  the  city.  [Or]  Anderson  wrote  good 
editorials  —  the  best  that  appeared  in  any  paper  in  the  city. 

Exception. —  Condensed  or  elliptical  phrases  established 
by  long  and  frequent  use  may  be  written  as  separate 
sentences.  They  should  be  followed  by  appropriate 
punctuation  —  usually  by  a  period. 

Examples:     Yes.     Of  course.     Really?     By  all  means! 

189 


90 


PUNCTUATION  — THE  PERIOD 

Note. —  The  student  should  distinguish  clearly  between  a 
subordinate  clause  and  a  main  clause.  A  subordinate 
clause  is  introduced  by  a  subordinate  conjunction 
{zihen,  zcJiilc,  if,  as,  since,  althouyh,  that,  lest,  because, 
in  order  that,  etc.),  or  by  a  relative  pronoun  {who, 
whicJi,  that,  etc.).  Since  a  subordinate  clause  does  not 
express  a  complete  thought,  it  cannot  stand  alone,  but 
must  be  joined  to  a  main  clause  to  form  a  sentence. 

C.    Place  a  period  after  an  abbreviation. 

Bros.     Mr.     e.g.     Ph.D.     LL.D.     etc. 

If  an  abbreviation  falls  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  one 
period  may  serve  two  functions. 

Exercise : 

1.  The  hen  clucks  to  her  chickens.     When  she  scratches   up  a 

worm. 

2.  Before  my  brother  could   forewarn  me.     I   had  touched  my 

tongue  against  the  cold  iron.     On  which  it  stuck. 

3.  The  commission  had  the  services  of  two  men  of  international 

reputation.  Charles  Newman,  Esq,  and  Gifford  Bailey, 
Ph  D. 

4.  Since  Hugh  had  fished  only  in  creeks.     He  was  surprised  that 

the  lines  were  let  down  a  hundred  feet  or  more.  The  right 
distance  for  codfish. 

5.  Between  1775  and  1825  Virginia  furnished  the  nation  its  lead- 

ers. Such  as  the  author  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. The  orator  of  the  Revolution.  The  leader  of  the 
Revolutionary  army.  The  chief  maker  of  the  Constitution. 
Four  of  our  first  five  Presidents.  And  our  greatest  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court. 


190 


91 


PUNCTUATION  —  THE  COMMA 

The  Comma 

There  are  five  principal  uses  of  the  comma: 
to  separate  clauses   (a  —  d) 
to  set  off  a  parenthetical  element   (e) 
to  mark  a  series  (f  —  g) 
to 'introduce  a  quotation  (h) 
to  compel  a  pause  for  the  sake  of  clearness  (i) 

La.  A  comma  is  used  between  clauses  joined  by  but,  for, 
and,  or  any  other  coordinating  conjunction. 

Right:  The  hour  arrived,  but  Forbes  did  not  appear.  [The 
'  comma  emphasizes  the  contrast] 

Right:  She  was  glad  she  had  looked,  for  a  man  was  approach- 
ing the  house.  [The  comma  prevents  the  combination  looked 
for  a  man.] 

Right:  He  gave  the  money  to  Burke,  and  Reynolds  received 
nothing.     [The  comma  prevents  confusion.] 

Exception. —  If  the  clauses  are  short  and  closely  linked 
in  thought,  the  comma  may  be  omitted  (She  came  and 
she  was  gone  in  a  moment.  McCoy  talked  and  the  rest 
of  us  listened).  If  the  clauses  are  long  and  compli- 
cated, a  semicolon  may  be  used    (See  92b). 

Note. —  No  comma  should  follow  the  conjunction. 
Wrong:  He  was  enthusiastic  but,  inexperienced. 
Wrong:  They  went  before  the  committee  but,  not  one 
of  them  would  answer  a  question. 

b.  Do  not  use  a  comma  between  independent  clauses 
which  are  not  joined  by  a  conjunction.  Use  a  period 
or  a  semicolon.  (This  error,  the  "  comma  splice,''  be- 
trays ignorance  of  what  constitutes  a  unified  sentence. 

See  18.) 

191 


91 

PUNCTUATION  — THE  COMMA 

Wrong:  The  circus  had  just  come  to  town,  every  one  wanted 
to  see  it. 

Right:  The  circus  had  just  come  to  town.  Every  one  wanted 
to  see  it. 

Wrong:  The  story  deals  with  the  hfe  of  a  youth,  Don  Juan, 
his  mother  desired  to  make  an  angel  of  him. 

Right:  The  story  deals  with  the  life  of  a  youth,  Don  Juan. 
His  mother  desired  to  make  an  angel  of  him. 

Wrong:     My  courses  required  very  hard  study,  did  yours? 

Right:  My  courses  required  very  hard  study.  Did  yours? 
[Or]  My  courses  required  very  hard  study;  did  yours? 

Wrong :  He  will  assist  you  without  the  slightest  hesitation, 
indeed  he  will  do  so  with  alacrity. 

Right :  He  will  assist  you  without  the  slightest  hesitation.  In- 
deed he  will  do  so  with  alacrity.  [Or]  He  will  assist  you 
without  the  slightest  hesitation ;  indeed  he  will  do  so  with 
alacrity. 

Exception. —  Short  coordinate  clauses  which  are  not 
joined  by  conjunctions,  but  which  are  parallel  in  struc- 
ture and  leave  a  unified  impression,  may  be  joined  by 
commas. 

Right :     He  sowed,  he  reaped,  he  repented. 

C.    An  adverbial  clause  which  precedes  a  main  clause  is 
usually  set  off  by  a  comma. 

When  long: 

Right:  While  I  have  much  confidence  in  his  sincerity,  I  can- 
not approve  his  decision.  [The  comma  marks  the  meeting 
point  of  clauses  too  long  to  be  easily  read  together.  Brief 
clauses  do  not  require  the  comma.  Right :  Where  thou 
goest  I  will  go.] 

When  ending  in  words  that  link  themselves  with  words 
in  the  main  clause : 

192 


91 


PUNCTUATION  — THE  COMMA 

Right:  If  Jacob  finds  time  to  plow,  the  garden  can  be 
planted  tomorrow.  [The  comma  prevents  ploiv  the  garden 
from  being  read  as  verb  and  object.] 

When   not  closely   connected   with   the  main   clause   in 
meaning : 

Right:     Although  they  were  few,  they  were  resolute.     [Here 

'     the  cohima   reveals  the   distinctness   of   the   two   stages   of 

thought.     In  the  sentence  //  it  f recces  the  skating  ivill  be 

good  the  dis^nctness  of  the  two  thoughts  is  less  emphatic, 

and  the  comma  may  be  omitted.] 

Note. —  The  comma  is  usually  omitted  when  the  adverbial 
clause  follows  the  main  clause. 

Right :  The  score  stood  twelve  to  twel\  e  when  the  first  half 
ended.  [The  adverbial  clause  is  linked  closely  with  the  ele- 
ment it  modifies,  the  predicate ;  punctuation  is  unnecessary. 
If  the  zi'hcn  clause  were  placed  before  the  element  it  does  not 
modify,  the  subject,  a  comma  should  be  inserted.] 

d.  Restrictive  clauses  should  not  be  set  off  by  commas; 
non-restrictive  clauses  should  be  set  off  by  commas. 
(A  restrictive  clause  is  one  inseparably  connected  with 
the  noun  or  pronoun  it  modifies ;  to  omit  it  would  change 
the  thought  of  the  main  clause.  A  non-restrictive  clause 
is  less  vitally  connected  with  the  noun  or  pronoun ;  to 
omit  it  would  not  affect  the  thought  of  the  main  clause.) 

Right:  Men  who  are  industrious  will  succeed.  [The  relative 
clause  restricts  the  meaning;  it  is  inseparably  connected  with 
the  noun  it  modifies,  and  to  omit  it  would  change  the  thought 
of  the  main  clause  ] 

Right:  Thomas  Carlyle,  who  wrote  forty  volumes,  was  of  peas- 
ant origin.  [The  relative  clause  is  non-restrictive ;  it  is  not 
inseparably  connected  with  the  noun  it  modifies,  and  to  omit 

193 


91 


PUNCTUATION  — THE  COMMA 

it  would  not  change  the  thought  of  the  main  clause.  Thus : 
Thomas  Carlyle  was  of  peasant  origin.] 

Right:     Where  IS  the  house  that  Jack  built?     [Restrictive.] 

Right:  I  went  to  Jack's  house,  which  is  across  the  street. 
[Non-restrictive] 

Wrong :  Students,  who  are  lazy,  do  not  deserve  to  pass.  [The 
sentence  as  it  stands  says  that  all  students  are  lazy,  and  that 
none  of  them  deserve  to  pass.  Without  the  commas,  the  sen- 
tence would  mean  that  such  students  as  are  lazy  do  not  de- 
serve to  pass.] 

Right :     Students  who  are  lazy  do  not  deserve  to  pass.    ' 

The    rule    stated    above    for    clauses    applies    also    to 
phrases. 

Right:  She,  hearing  the  voice,  turned  quickly.  [Hearing  the 
voice  is  non-restrictive.  It  does  not  identify  she,  and  the 
thought  of  the  main  clause  is  complete  without  it.] 

Right:  Books  pertaining  to  aeronautics  are  in  demand.  [Prr- 
taining  to  aeronautics  is  restrictive.  It  explains  what  books 
are  referred  to,  and  without  it  the  meaning  of  the  main  thought 
is  changed.] 

Right :  Our  country,  made  up  as  it  is  of  democratic  people, 
lacks  the  centralized  power  of  a  monarchy.     [Non-restrictive.] 

Right:  A  country  made  up  of  democratic  people  must  be  lack- 
ing in  centralized  power.  [Restrictive.  Made  up  of  demo- 
cratic people  explains  country  and  is  essential  to  the  thought 
of  the  sentence.] 

e.  Slightly  parenthetical  elements  are  set  off  by  commas: 

Direct  address  or  explanation : 

Write  soon,  Henry,  and  tell  all  the  news. 

They  intend,  as  you  know,  to  build  a  great  dam  across  the 
river. 

His  father,  they  say,  was  frugal  and  industrious. 

I,  on  my  part,  however,  am  unalterably  opposed  to  the  ex- 
penditure. 

194 


I 


91 


PUNCTUATION  — THE  COMMA 

He  was,  according  to  such  reports  as  have  reached  me,  alto- 
gether in  the  right. 

Mild  interjections: 

Well,  we  shall  see. 
Come  now,  let's  talk  it  over. 
But  alas,  the  cupboard  was  bare. 
.The  custQm  is,  oh,  very  old. 

Absolute  phrases : 
This  being  admftted,  I  shall  proceed  to  my  other  evidence. 

Geographical   names    which   explain   other   names   and 
dates  which  explain  other  dates: 
The  convention  met  at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  on  March  24,  1916. 

Words  in  apposition : 

We  arrived  at  Austin,  the  capital  of  Texas. 
It  was  Archie,  my  best  friend  in  boyhood. 

Exception.— The  comma  is  omitted  (i)  When  the  appositive  is 
part  of  a  proper  name.  Right :  William  the  Silent,  Alexan- 
der the  Great.  (2)  When  there  is  unusually  close  connection 
between  the  appositive  and  the  noun  it  modifies.  Right :  My 
one  confidant  was  my  brother  Robert.  (3)  When  the  apposi- 
tive is  a  word  or  phrase  to  which  attention  is  called  by  italics 
or  some  other  device  which  sets  it  apart.  Right:  The  word 
sequent  is  derived  from  Latin.  Right:  The  expression 
"  That's  fine  "  is  one  which  I  use  indiscriminately. 

Note. —  When  the  parenthetical  element  occurs  in  the 
middle  of  a  sentence,  "  set  off  by  commas "  means 
punctuate  before  and  after. 

Wrong :     I  was,  madam  at  home  yesterday. 
Right :     I  was,  madam,  at  home  yesterday. 
Wrong :     T  am  to  say  the  least,  provoked. 
Right :     I  am,  to  say  the  least,  provoked. 

195 


91 

PUNCTUATION  —  THE  COMMA 

f.  Consecutive  adjectives  that  modify  the  same  noun  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  commas.  If,  however, 
the  last  adjective  is  closely  linked  in  meaning  with 
the  noun,  no  comma  is  used  before  it. 

Right:     A  short,  sHght,  pitiable  ligure. 

Right :     A    shrewd    professional    man.     [Shrcz\.'d    modifies,    not 

man  alone,  bnt  professional  man] 
Right:     A  bedraggled  old  rooster.     [Old  rooster  has  almost  the 

force  of  a  compound  word.     Bedraggled  modifies  the  general 

idea  old  rooster.] 

Note. —  The  commas  in  a  series  of  adjectives  are  tised  to 
separate  the  adjectives  from  each  other.  No  comma 
should  intervene  between  the  final  adjective  and  the 
noun.  Wrong:  He  was  only  a  frail,  unarmed,  fright- 
ened, youngster.  Right :  He  was  only  a  frail,  un- 
armed,   frightened   youngster. 

g.  Words  or  phrases  in  series  are  separated  by  commas. 
When  the  series  takes  the  form  a,  b,  and  c,  a  comma 
precedes  the  and. 

Confusing:  The  railroads  in  question  are  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral, Pennsylvania  and  Chesapeake  and  Ohio.  [The  reader 
might  surmise  that  the  words  Pennsylvania  and  Chesapeake 
and  Ohio  represent  a  single  line  or  even  three  different  lines.] 

Right :  The  railroads  in  question  are  the  New  York  Central, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Chesapeake  and  Ohio. 

Confusing:  For  breakfast  we  had  oatmeal,  bacon,  eggs  and 
honey.  [Omission  of  the  comma  after  eggs  suggests  a  mix- 
ture.] 

Right :     For  breakfast  we  had  oatmeal,  bacon,  eggs,  and  honey. 

h.  A  comma  should  follow  an  expression  like  he  said 
which  introduces  a  short  quotation.  (For  longer  or 
more  formal  quotations,  use  a  colon.) 

196 


91 

PUNCTUATION  —  THE  COMMA 

Right :     He  shouted,  "  Come  on  !     I  dare  you !  " 
Right:     Our  captain  repHed,  '"  \Ve"re  ready." 

But  for  indirect  quotations,  a  caution  is  necessary.  Do 
not  place  a  comma  between  a  verb  and  a  that  or  lioiv 
clause  which  the  verb  iritroduces. 

Wrong:     He  explained,  how  the  accident  occurred. 

Right:     He  explained  how  the  accident  occurred. 

Wrong:     The   chauffeur   told    us,    that    the   gasoline    tank    was 

empty. 
Right:     The  chauffeur  told  us  that  the  gasoline  tank  was  empty. 

i.    A  comma  is  used  to  separate  parts  of  a  sentence  which 
might  erroneously  be  read  together. 

Confusing:     Long  before  she  had  received  a  letter. 

Better :     Long  before,  she  had  received  a  letter. 

Confusing:  We  turned  the  corner  and  the  horse  stopped 
throwing  us  of¥. 

Better:  We  turned  the  corner  and  the  horse  stopped,  throwing 
us  off. 

Confusing:  Through  the  alumni  gathered  there  went  a  thrill  of 
dismay. 

Better:  Through  the  alumni  gathered  there,  went  a  thrill  of 
dismay. 

Wrong:  For  a  dime  you  can  buy  two  pieces  of  pie  or  cake  and 
ice  cream. 

Right :  For  a  dime  you  can  buy  two  pieces  of  pie,  or  cake  and 
ice  cream. 

Right :  The  man  whom  everybody  had  for  years  regarded  as 
a  crank  and  a  weakling,  is  now  praised  for  his  sagacity  and 
his  strength. 

Right:  In  a  situation  so  critical  as  to  require  the  utmost  cool- 
ness of  mind,  he  lost  his  wits  completely.  [Here  the  confu- 
sion might  not  be  serious  if  the  comma  were  omitted,  but 
separation  of  the  long  introduction  from  the  main  clause  is 
desirable.] 

197 


91 


PUNCTUATION  — THE  COMMA 


j.    Do  not  use  superfluous  commas: 

1.  To  mark  a  trivial  pause : 

Needless  use  of  comma :     lii  the  road,  stood  a  wagon. 
Needless  use  of  commas :     The  taking  of  notes,  is  a  guarantee, 
against  inattention,  in  class. 

Slight  pauses  in  a  sentence  are  taken  care  of  by  the 
good  sense  of  the  reader.  Do  not  sprinkle  commas 
when  the  sentence  is  moving  along  freely  with  no 
complication  in  the  thought. 

Right:     In  the  road  stood  a  wagon. 

Right :  The  taking  of  notes  is  a  guarantee  against  inattention 
in  class. 

2.  To  separate  an  adjective  from  its  noun : 

Wrong :  A  tall,  solemn,  antique,  clock  stood  in  the  hallway. 
[The  first  two  commas  separate  the  adjectives  from  each 
other.  There  is  no  reason  why  antique  should  be  separated 
from  the  noun.] 

Right :     A  tall,  solemn,  antique  clock  stood  in  the  hallway. 

3.  Before  the  first  word  or  phrase  in  a  series  unless  the 
comma  would  be  employed  if  the  word  or  phrase  stood 
alone : 

Wrong:  He  made  a  study  of,  gymnastics,  medicine,  and  sur- 
gery. 

Right :  He  made  a  study  of  gymnastics,  medicine,  and  sur- 
gery. 

Wrong:  He  had  learned,  to  be  prompt,  to  think  clearly,  and 
to  write  correctly. 

Right :  He  had  learned  to  be  prompt,  to  think  clearly,  and 
to  write  correctly. 


92 


PUNCTUATION  — THE  SEMICOLON 

Exercise : 

1.  Before    the    workmen    finished    eating   the    tunnel    caved    in. 

Three  ItaHan  laborers  were  crushed,  the  others  with  the 
foreman  escaped. 

2.  Sneed  the  new  chairman  proposed  that  the  convention  should 

meet  at  Cheyenne  Wyoming.  The  suggestion  however  was 
according  to  reports  not  adopted. 

3.  He  had  a  pen  and  an  ink  bottle  was  in  the  cupboard.     By 

washing  poor  widows  can  earn  but  scant  living. 

4.  Saunders  askeci;  how  1   liked  the  Overland  car  as  compared 

with  the  Chalmers,  the  Hudson  and  the  Buick.  I  started  to 
reply  but  at  that  moment  we  were  interrupted. 

5.  People,   who   steal   watermelons,    say   the   stolen   melons   are 

sweetest.  Farragut  who  was  born  in  Tennessee  was  the 
North's  ablest  naval  commander.  The  developer  is  a 
chemical,  which  reduces  the  silver  salt. 

The  Semicolon 

The  semicolon  represents  a  division  in  thought  some- 
what greater  than  that  represented  by  a  comma,  and 
somewhat  smaller  than  that  represented  by  a  period.  It 
may  represent  grammatical  separation  and  logical  con- 
nection at  the  same  time ;  that  is,  it  may  indicate  that 
two  statements  are  separate  units  in  grammar,  and  are 
yet  to  be  taken  together  to  form  a  larger  unit  of  logic 
or  thought. 

92a.  The  semicolon  is  used  between  coordinate  clauses 
which  are  not  joined  by  a  conjunction.  (For  a  pos- 
sible exception  see  91b.) 

Wrong :     He  was  alarmed  in  fact  he  was  terrified. 
Right:     He  was  alarmed;  in  fact  he  was  terrified. 
Right:     He  drew  up  at  the  curb;  he  leaped  from  the  car. 

199 


92 

PUNCTUATION  —  THE  SEMICOLON 

Note. —  Very  often  the  writer  may  choose  freely  be- 
tween the  semicolon  and  the  period;  in  such  instances 
the  use  of  the  semicolon  implies  greater  logical  unity 
between  the  clauses  than  the  use  of  the  period  would 
show.  Unless  this  logical  unity  is  distinct,  the  period 
is  to  be  preferred. 

b.  The  semicolon  is  sometimes  used  between  coordinate 
clauses  which  are  joined  by  a  conjunction  if  the 
clauses  are  long,  or  if  the  clauses  have  commas  within 
themselves,  or  if  obscurity  would  result  were  the 
semicolon  not  used.     (Otherwise,  see  91a.) 

Right:  Very  slowly  the  glow  in  the  heavens  deepened  and  ex- 
tended itself  along  the  eastern  horizon;  but  at  last  the  bright- 
red  rim  of  the  sun  showed  above  the  crest  of  the  hill. 

Right :  He  arrived,  so  they  tell  me,  after  nightfall ;  and  imme- 
diately going  to  a  hotel,  called  for  a  room. 

Confusing:  She  enjoyed  the  dinners,  and  the  dancing,  and  tlie 
music,  and  the  whole  gay  round  of  fashionable  life  was  a  do- 
light  to  her. 

Better:  She  enjoyed  the  dinners,  and  the  dancing,  and  the 
music;  and  the  whole  gay  round  of  fashionable  life  was  a 
delight  to  her. 

C.  The  semicolon  is  used  between  coordinate  clauses 
which  are  joined  by  a  formal  conjunctive  adverb 
(hence,  thus,  then,  therefore,  accordingly,  conse- 
quently, besides,  still,  nevertheless,  or  the  like). 

Wrong:     We  have  failed  in  this  therefore  let  us  try  something 

else. 
Right:     We  have  failed  in  this;  therefore  let  us  try  something 

else. 
Wrong:     He   was   tattered   and   muddy,   besides   he   ate   like   a 

cormorant. 

200 


92 


PUNCTUATION  — THE  SEMICOLON 

Right:     He  was  tattered  and  muddy;  besides  he  ate  hke  a  cor- 
morant. 

Note  I. —  If  a  simple  conjunction  like  and  is  used  in  the 
sentences  above,  a  comma  will  suttee.  But  a  comma  is 
not  sufficient  before  a  conjunctive  adverb  like  therefore. 
Conjunctive  adverbs  may  be  clearly  distinguished  from 
simple  conjunctions  (See  91a).  They  cannot  always 
be  easily  distinguished  from  subordinating  conjunctions 
(see  90b,  Not^),  but  the  distinction,  when  it  can  be 
made  with  certainty,  is  an  aid  to  clear  thinking. 

Note  2. —  Good  usage  sometimes  permits  a  comma  to  be 
used  before  a  conjunctive  adverb  in  short  sentences 
where  the  break  in  the  thought  is  not  formal  or  emphatic. 
For  instance,  when  the  conjunctive  adverb  so  is  used  as 
a  formal  or  emphatic  connective,  a  semicolon  is  desir- 
able (I  won't  go;  so  that's  settled).  But  in  the  sen- 
tence, "  I  was  excited,  so  I  missed  the  target ",  a 
comma  is  sufficient.  For  the  use  of  so  is  here  informal, 
and  i)robably  expresses  degree  as  well  as  result.  (Com- 
pare "  I  was  so  excited  that  I  missed  the  target"). 

d.  The  semicolon  is  not  used  before  quotations,  or  after 
the  "  Dear  Sir  "  in  letters.  Use  a  comma  or  a  colon. 
(See  9ih,  93a,  and  87b.) 

Wrong :     Alother  said ;  "  Let  me  get  my  needle." 
Right:     Mother  said,  "Let  me  get  my  needle." 

Exercise : 

1.  The  eggs  tasted  musty,  they  were  cold  storage  eggs. 

2.  You    should    have    seen    that    old,    formally   kept    house,    you 

should  have  sat  in  that  stuffy  and  immaculate  parlor. 

3.  I  objected  to  the  plan  however  since  he  insisted   upon   it   I 

yielded. 


93 

PUNCTUATION  —  THE  COLON 

4.  I  suppose  I  must  go  if  I  don't  he  will  be  anxious. 

5.  Although  the  note  is  due  on  March  19,  you  have  three  days 

of  grace,  consequently  you  may  pay  it  on  March  22. 

The  Colon 

93a.  The  colon  is  used  to  introduce  formally  a  word,  a  list, 
a  statement  or  question,  a  series  of  statements  or 
questions,  or  a  long  quotation. 

Right:     Only  one  man  stood  between  Burr  and  the  presidency: 

Jefferson. 
Right:     My  favorite  novels  are  the  following:     Ivanhoe,  Henry 

Esmond,  and  The  Mill  on  the  Floss. 
Right :     The  difificulty  is  this :     Where   is   the  money   to  come 

from  ? 
Right :     The  measure  must  be  considered  from  several   stand- 
points:     Is    it    tmiely?     Is    it   expedient?     Is    it    just.''     Is    it 

superior  to  the  other  measures  proposed? 
Right:     I  shall  do  three  things  next  year:  study  hard,  take  care 

of  my  health,  and  enter  into  various  student  activities. 
Right:     Webster    concluded    with     the     following    peroration: 

"  When  my  eyes  shall  be  turned  for  the  last  time  to  behold 

the  sun  in  heaven,"  etc.,  etc. 

b.    The  colon  may  be  used  before  concrete  illustrations  of 
a  general  statement. 

Right :     The   colors   were   various :    blue,    purple,   emerald,   and 

orange. 
Right :     The  day  was  propitious :  the  sun  shone,  the  birds  sang, 

the  flowers  sent  forth  their  fragrance. 

Exercise: 

1.  The  city  must  have  these  improvements  paved  streets  more 

schools  better  sanitation  and  a  park. 

2.  A  guild  comprised  men  of  a  single  class  tailors,  fishmongers, 

or  goldsmiths. 

3.  Everything   was    favorable,    it   was   a   wheat-raising   district, 


94 


PUNCTUATION  — THE  DASH 

there  were  no  rival  mills,  the  means  of  transportation  were 
excellent. 

4.  The  personal  adornments  of  the  eighteenth  century  "  blood  " 

were    elaborate,   wigs,    cocked   hat,   colored    breeches,    red- 
heeled  shoes,  cane,  and  muff. 

5.  The  chief  of  the  engineers  reported  "  The  route,  taken  as  a 

whole,  is  practicable  enough,  but  near  Clifton,  where  the 
yards  .must  be  placed,  it  leads  through  a  rocky  defile." 

i         The  Dash 

94a.    The  dash  may  be  used  instead  of  the  marks  of  paren- 
thesis, especially  where  informality  is  desired. 

Right:     She  fell  asleep  —  would  you  believe  it?  —  in  the  middle 

of  the  lecture. 
Right:     That   fellow   actually  —  of  course  this  is   between   you 

and  me  —  stole  money  from  his  father. 

b.    Insert  a  dash  when  a  sentence  is  broken  off  abruptly. 

Right :  The  next  morning  —  let's  see,  what  happened  the  next 
morning? 

C.   The  dash  may  be  used  near  the  end  of  a  sentence,  be- 
fore a  summarizing  statement  or  an  afterthought. 

Right :  When  you  have  carried  in  the  wood  and  the  water, 
and  milked  the  cows,  and  fed  all  the  stock  and  the  poultry,  and 
mended  the  harness  —  when  you  have  done  these  things,  you 
may  consider  the  rest  of  the  evening  your  own. 

Right :  Barnes  played  a  mischievous  trick  one  day  —  in  fact, 
Barnes  was  always  into  mischief. 

d.   The  use  of  the  dash  to  end  sentences  is  childish. 

Childish:  At  dawn  I  went  on  deck — far  off  to  the  left  was  a 
cloud,  I  thought,  on  the  edge  of  the  water  —  it  grew  more 
distinct  as  we  angled  toward  it  —  it  was  land  —  before  noon 
we  had  sailed  into  harbor. 

203 


95 

PUNCTUATION -PARENTHESES  AND  BRACKETS 

Right:  At  dawn  I  went  on  deck.  Far  off  to  the  left  was  a 
cloud,  I  thought,  on  the  edge  of  the  water.  It  grew  more  dis- 
tinct as  we  angled  toward  it.  it  was  land.  Before  noon  we 
had  sailed  into  harbor. 

e.  A  dash  should  be  made  about  three  times  as  long  as  a 
hyphen;  otherwise  it  may  be  mistaken  as  the  sign  of 
a  compound  word. 

Exercise : 

1.  The.  boy  left  the  package  on  the  where  did  that  boy  leave  the 

package  ? 

2.  She  was  haughty  independent  as  a  queen  in  fact  and  she  told 

him  no. 

3.  The   clatter   of    the    other   typewriters,    the    relentless    move- 

ment of  the  hands  of  the  clock,   the  calls   from  the  press 
room  for  more  copy,  these  made  Sears  write  like  mad. 

4.  He   made   her   acquaintance    what   do    you    think    of   this    by 

scribbhng  his  name  and  address  on  some  eggs  he  sold  to  a 
grocer. 

5.  He  obtained  a  position  in  a  big  department  store  — his  good 

taste  was  quickly  recognized  —  within  a  month  he  was  dress- 
ing the  windows. 

Parenthesis  Marks  and  Brackets 

95a.  Parenthesis  marks  may  be  used  to  enclose  matter 
foreign  to  the  main  thought  of  the  sentence.  (But 
see  also  94a  and  9ie.) 

Right:  His  testimony  is  conclusive  (unless,  to  be  sure,  we  find 
that  he  has  perjured  himself). 

D.  A  comma  or  a  semicolon  used  at  the  end  of  a  paren- 
thesis should  as  a  rule  follow  the  mark  of  parenthesis 
rather  than  precede  it. 

Right       If  there  is  snow  on  the  ground   (and  I  am  sure  there 
will  be),  we  shall  have  plenty  of  sleighing. 
204 


PUNCTUATION  — PARENTHESES  AND  BRACKETS 

C.  When  confirmatory  symbols  or  figures  are  enclosed 
within  parenthesis  marks,  they  should  follow  rather 
than  precede  the  words  they  confirm. 

Wrong:     The^-  earn  (3)  three  dollars  a  day. 
Right:     They  earn  three    (3)    dollars  a  day.     [Or]   They  earn 
three  dollars  ($3)  a  day. 

d.  Do  not  use  parenthesis  marks  to  cancel  a  word  or  pas- 

sage. Draw  a  horizontal  line  through  whatever  is  to 
])e  omitted. 

e.  Brackets  are  used  to  insert  explanatory  matter  in  a 

quotation  which  one  gives  from  another  writer.  Ex- 
planatory matter  niserted  by  the  original  writer  is  en- 
closed within  parenthesis  marks. 

Right:  "  Bunyan's  masterpiece  {The  Pilgrim's  Progress),"  de- 
clared the  lecturer,  "  is  out  of  harmony  with  the  spirit  of 
the  age  that  produced  it  [the  age  of  the  Restoration]."  (Here 
the  explanatory  words  the  age  of  the  Restoration  are  inserted 
by  the  person  who  is  quoting  the  lecturer.) 

Exercise : 

1.  The  supremacy  of  the  horse-drawn  vehicle  is  unless  a  miracle 

happens  now  gone  forever. 

2.  My  count  shows   (41)    forty-one  bales  of  cotton  in  the  mill 

yard. 

3.  [Insert  the  Marne  as  your  explanation]:     "It  was  this  bat- 

tle," said  the  lecturer,  "that  made  the  name  of  Joffre  im- 
mortal." 

4.  [Insert  Florida  as  the  explanation  of  the  person  yon  are  quot- 

ing] :     "  In  that  state  oranges  are  plentiful." 

5.  It  was  the   opinion   of    Bailey   and   events   proved   him    right 

that  the  government  must  assume  control  of  the  railroads. 


20s 


95 


96 

PUNCTUATION  — QUOTATION  MARKS 

Quotation  Marks 

96a.    Quotation  marks  should  be  used  to  enclose  a  direct, 
but  not  an  indirect,  quotation. 

Right:     "I  am  thirsty,"  he  said. 
Wrong:     He  said  "that  he  was  thirsty." 
Right:     He  said  that  he  was  thirsty. 

D.  A  quotation  of  several  paragraphs  should  have  quota- 
tion marks  at  the  beginning  of  each  paragraph  and  at 
the  end  of  the  last  paragraph. 

C.  In  narrative  each  separate  speech,  however  short, 
should  be  enclosed  within  quotation  marks;  but  a 
single  speech  of  several  sentences  should  have  only  one 
set  of  quotation  marks. 

Wrong:     "Will  you  come?  she  pleaded. 
Certainly." 

Right:     "Will  you  come?"  she  pleaded. 
"  Certainly." 

Wrong:  He  replied,  "It  was  not  for  my  own  sake  that  I  did 
this."  "  There  were  others  whom  I  had  to  consider."  "  I  can 
mention  no  names." 

Right :  He  replied,  "  It  was  not  for  my  own  sake  that  I  did 
this.  There  were  others  whom  I  had  to  consider,  I  can  men- 
tion no  names." 

d.  Quotation  marks  may  be  used  with  technical  terms, 
with  slang  introduced  into  formal  writing,  or  with 
nicknames;  but  not  with  merely  elevated  diction, 
with  good  English  that  resembles  slang,  with  nicknames 
that  have  practically  become  proper  names,  or  with  fic- 
titious names   from   literature. 

Permissible:     The    rime   is   called   a   "feminine    rime".     He   is 
really  "a  corker".    Their  name  for  my  friend  was  "Sissy". 
206 


96 


PUNCTUATION  —  QUOTATION  MARKS 

Better  without  the  quotation  marks:  He  was  awed  by  "the 
grandeur  of  the  mountains".  "A  humbug".  "Fetch". 
"  Stonewall "  Jackson.     He  was  a  true  "  Rip  Van  Winkle  ". 

e.  Either  quotation  marks  or  italics  may  be  used  with 

words  to  which  special  attention  is  called.  (See  the 
examples  under  gie.  Exception,  3.)  Quotation  marks 
ar6  used  with  the  titles  of  articles,  of  chapters  in  books, 
of  individual  short  poems,  and  the  like.  Italics  are  used 
with  the  titles  of-books  or  of  periodicals,  with  the  names 
of  ships,  and  with  foreign  words  which  are  still  felt  to 
be  emphatically  foreign. 

f.  A   quotation    within    a    quotation    should    be    enclosed 

in  single  quotation  marks;  a  quotation  within  that, 
in  double  marks. 

Right:  "It  required  courage,"  the  speaker  said,  "for  a  man  to 
affirm  in  those  days :  '  I  endorse  every  word  of  Patrick  Henry's 
sentiment,  "  Give  me  liberty,  or  give  me  death  !  '* '" 

g.  When  a  word  is  followed  by  both  a  quotation  mark  and 
a  question  mark  or  an  exclamation  point,  the  ques- 
tion mark  or  the  exclamation  point  should  come  first 
if  it  applies  to  the  quotation;  last,  if  it  applies  to  the 
main  sentence. 

Wrong :  He  shouted  but  one  command,  "  Give  them  the  bay- 
onet " ! 

Right :  He  shouted  but  one  command,  "  Give  them  the  bay- 
onet!  " 

Wrong:     Did  Savonarola  say,  "I  recant?" 

Right :     Did  Savonarola  say,  "  I  recant  "  ? 

Note. —  Regarding  the  position  of  a  comma,  semicolon, 
or  period  at  the  end  of  a  quotation,  usage  differs. 
Printers  ordinarily  place  commas  and  periods  inside  the 


96 

PUNCTUATION  -  QUOTATION  MARKS 

quotation  marks,  and  semicolons  outside,  from  consid- 
erations of  spacing.  But  logic,  not  spacing,  should 
determine  the  order,  and  all  three  marks  should  be 
treated  alike.  They  should  be  placed  within  the  quo- 
tation marks  if  they  were  a  part  of  the  original  quota- 
tion;  otherwise  outside.  In  quoting  manuscript,  the 
quotation  marks  should  enclose  exactly  what  is  in  the 
original.  In  quoting  oral  discourse,  a  certain  liberty 
is  necessarily  allowed. 

Correct:     He  said  calmly,  "  It  is  I." 

Also  correct,  but  not  commonly  used :     He  said  calmly,  "  It  is  I ''. 

Correct,  and  in  common  use,  but  slightly  illogical:  He  began, 
"  Our  Father  which  art  m  heaven."  [The  period  should  fol- 
low the  quotation  mark,  since  there  is  no  period  in  the  original 
quotation.] 

Correct,  and  in  common  use,  but  slightly  illogical:  Can  you 
tell  me  the  difiference  between  "  apt,"  "  likely,"  and  "  liable  "  ; 
between  "  noted  "  and  "  notorious  "  ? 

Also  correct :  Can  you  tell  me  the  difference  between  "  apt  ", 
"likely",  and  "liable";  between  "noted"  and  "notorious"? 

h.    When  a  quotation  is   interrupted  by  such  an  expres- 
sion as  he  said, 

1.  An  extra  set  of  quotation  marks  is  employed,  and  the 

interpolated  words  are  normally  set  off  by  commas. 

Wrong :     "  I  rise  said  he  to  second  the  motion." 
Right :     "  I  rise,"  said  he,  "  to  second  the  motion." 

2.  A  question  mark  or  exclamation  point  should  pre- 

cede the  interpolated  expression  if  it  would  be  used 
were  the  expression  omitted. 

Right:     "'May  I  go?'"  complained   father,  "is  all  that  boy 

can  ask." 
Right:     "Merciful  heavens!"  he  cried,  "we  are  lost." 
208 


96 


PUNCTUATION  --  QUOTATION  MARKS 

3.  The  expression  should  be  followed  by  a  semicolon 

if  the  semicolon  would  follow  the  preceding  words  in 
case  the  expression  were  omitted. 

Right;     "1  admit  it",  he  said;  "it  is  true." 

4.  Neither  the  expression  nor  the  words  following  it 

"should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Wrong:  "We  must  be  quiet",  Said  the  old  man,  "If  we 
expect  to  catch  sight  of  a  squirrel." 

Right:  "We  must  be  quiet",  said  the  old  man,  "if  we  ex- 
pect to  catch  sight  of  a  squirrel." 

i.    An  omission  from  a  quotation  is  indicated  by  dots. 

Right :  "  When  a  word  is  followed  by  both  a  quotation  mark 
and  ...  an  exclamation  point,  .  .  .  the  exclamation  point 
should  come  .  .  .  last,  if  it  applies  to  the  main  sentence." 
[Abridged  citation  of  g  above.] 

J.   Do  not  use  superfluous  quotation  marks: 

1.  Around  the  title  at  the  head  of  a  theme  (unless  it  is  a 
■quoted  title)  ; 

2.  As  a  label  for  huinor  or  irony. 

Superfluous:     The  "abstemious"  Mr.  Crew  ate  an  enormous 

dinner. 
Better:     The  abstemious  Mr.  Crew  ate  an  enormous  dinner. 

Exercise : 

1.  Carew  says,  "  that  the  profit  comes  from  selling  knickknacks." 

2.  What's   the  matter  with   that  horse?   asked   Williams.     He's 

as  frisky  as  if  he  had  been  shut  up  a  week. 

3.  "Who's  your  favorite  character  in  the  play?,  persisted  Laura. 

Is  it  "  Brutus  "?     No,  answered  Howard  :  I  admire  his  wife 
"  Portia  ". 

4.  "  It's    amazing,    said    Mrs.    Phelps,    how    children    love    play- 

209 


97 

PUNCTUATION  — THE  APOSTROPHE 

things.  Helen  Locke  said  yesterda}-,  Hughie  alwaj's  tells 
me  when  1  am  putting  him  to  bed,  1  want  my  Teddy  bear  ". 
5.  "  You  see,  said  Daugherty,  the  two  offices  across  the  corridor 
from  each  other."  "  One  is  the  county  clerk's."  "  The 
other  is  the  county  collector's." 

The  Apostrophe 

97a.    In  contracted  words  place  the  apostrophe  where  letters 
are  omitted,  and  do  not  place  it  elsewhere. 

Wrong;     does'nt,  theyr'e,  oclock. 
Right :     doesn't,  they're,  o'clock. 

b.  To  form  the  possessive  of  a  noun,  singular  or  plural, 
that  does  not  end  in  s,  add  's. 

Right:     A  hunter's  gun,  children's  games,  the  cannon's  mouth. 

C.  To  form  the  possessive  of  a  noun,  singular  or  plural, 
that  ends  in  s,  place  an  apostrophe  after  (not  before) 
the  s  if  there  is  no  new  syllable  in  pronunciation.  If 
there  is  a  new  syllable  in  pronunciation,  add  's. 

Wrong:     Moses's    mandates,    Keat's    poems,    Dicken's    novels, 

those  hunter's  guns. 
Right:     Moses'   mandates,    Keats's    poems    (or    Keats'   poems), 

Dickens'  (or  Dickens's)  novels,  those  hunters'  guns. 

d.  Do  not  use  an  apostrophe  with  the  possessive  adjec- 

tives its,  his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  and  theirs.  But 
one's,  other's,  either's  take  the  apostrophe. 

e.  Add  's  to  form  the  plural  of  letters  of  the  alphabet,  of 

words  spoken  of  as  words,  and  sometimes  numbers. 
But  do  not  form  the  regular  plural  of  a  word  by  add- 
ing 's  (See  yy). 

Right:  His  B's.  8's  (or  Ss).  and  it's  look  much  alike. 
Wrong:  The  Jones's,  the  Smith's,  and  the  Brown's. 
Right:    The  Joneses,  the  Smiths,  and  the  Browns, 


98 


I 


PUNCTUATION  —  QUESTION,  EXCLAiMATION 

Exercise : 

1.  We  do'nt  know  theyr'e  dishonest. 

2.  The  soldier's  heads  showed  above  the  trenches. 

3.  Five  8es,  three  jes,  and  two  ues  make  85. 

4.  Pierce   told   the   Keslers   that   Jones   hogs    were    fatter   than 

their's. 

5.  Its  three  oclock  b}'  his  watch;  five  minutes  past  three  by  her's. 

I 

The  Question  Mark  and  the  Exclamation  Point 

98a.    Place  a  question  mark  after  a  direct  question,  but  not 
after  an  indirect  question. 

Wrong:     What  of  it.     What  does  it  matter. 

Right :     What  of  it  ?     What  does  it  matter  ? 

Wrong:     He  asked  whether  1  belonged  to  the  glee  club? 

Right:     He  asked  whether  I  belonged  to  the  glee  club. 

Note. —  When  the  main  sentence  which  introduces  an  in- 
direct question  is  itself  interrogatory,  a  question  mark 
follows. 

Right:     Did  she  inquire  whether  you  had  met  her  aunt? 

b.  A  question  mark  is  often  used  within  a  sentence,  but 
should  not  be  followed  by  a  comma,  semicolon,  or 
period. 

Wrong:     "  What  shall  I  do?,"  he  asked. 
L  Right:     "What  shall  I  do?"  he  asked. 

f  Wrong:     But  where  are  the  stocks?,  the  bonds?,  the  evidences 

of  prosperity? 
Right:     But  where  are  the  stocks?  the  bonds?  the  evidences  of 
prosperity  ? 

C.  A  question  mark  within  parentheses  may  be  used  to 
express  uncertainty  as  to  the  correctness  of  an  asser- 
tion. 


99 

PUNCTUATION  —  EXERCISE 

Right:     Shakespeare  was  born  April  2j^  (?),  1564. 
Riglit ;     In  1340  (?)   was  born  (icol'trcy  Chaucer. 

d.  The  use  of  a  question  mark  as  a  label  for  humor  or 

irony  is  childish. 

Supcrlluous:     Immediately  the  social  lion  (?)  rose  to  his  feet. 
Better:     Immediately  the  social  lion  rose  to  his  feet. 

e.  The  exclamation  point  is  used  after  words,  expressions, 

or  sentences  to  show  strong  emotion. 

Right:     Hark!  1  hear  horses.     Give  us  a  light  there,  ho! 

Note. —  The  lavish  use  of  the  exclamation  point  is  not 
in  good  taste.  Unless  the  emotion  to  be  conveyed  is 
strong,  a  comma   will  suffice.     See  9ie. 

Exercise : 

1.  What  is  my  temperature,  doctor. 

2.  "  Shall  we  go  by  the  old  mill?  ",  asked  Newcomb? 

3.  Did  \Vu  Ting  Fang  say,  "  The  Chinese  Republic  will  survive." 

4.  He  inquired  whether  Lorado  Taft  is  the  greatest  living  Amer- 

ican sculptor. 

5.  Farewell.     Othello's  occupation's  gone. 

99.  EXERCISE  IN  PUNCTUATION 

A. 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Why  its  ten  oclock 

2.  It  was  a  rainy  foggy  morning 

3.  Arthurs  cousin  said  Lets  go 

4.  I  begged  her  to  .stay  but  she  refused 

5.  His  parents  you  know  were  wealthy 

6.  Near  by  the  children  were  playing  house 

7.  Ever  since  John  has  driven  carefully 


99 


PUNCTUATION  —  EXERCISE 

8.  I  smell  something  burning  Etta 

9.  Well  Harry  are  you  ready  for  a  tramp 

10.  1  well  remember  a  trip  which  I  once  took 

11.  When  the  day  has  ended  the  twilight  comes 

12.  She  was  a  poor  lonely  defenseless  old  woman 

13.  Trout  bass  and  pickerel  are  often  caught  there 

14.  Lees  army  was  defeated  at  Gettysburg  Pennsylvania  on  July  3 

1863 

15.  Students  who  are  poor  appreciate  the  value  of  an  education 

16.  Clem  Rogers  who  is  poor  as  Jobs  turkey  has  bought  a  phono- 

graph 

17.  He  had  no  resentment  against  the  man  who  had  injured  him 

18.  He  spoke  to  his  father  who  sat  on  the  veranda 

19.  The  rifle  which  he  used  on  this  trip  was  the  best  he  had 

20.  His  long  beard  sticking  out  at  an  angle  from  his  chin  and  his 

tall  silk  hat  looked  ridiculous 

B. 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences: 

1.  I  found  the  work  difficult  did  you  find  it  so 

2.  H  they  had  agreed  to  buy  things  would  have  been  different 

but  they  didnt 

3.  I  could  satisfy  myself  if  need  be  with  dreams  and  imaginary 

delights  she  must  have  realities 

4.  Well  Im  not  disappointed  its  just  what  I  expected 

5.  Hard  roads  are  not  only  an  advantage  they  are  almost  indis- 

pensable 

6.  The  man  who  hesitates  is  lost  the  woman  who  hesitates  is  won 

7.  The  nihilists  accept  no  principle  or  creed  they  reject  govern- 

ment and   religion  and  all   institutions   which  cramp  the  in- 
dividuals desires 

8.  No  longer  are  women  considered  weaklings  although  not  so 

strong  as  man  physically  they  are  now  assumed  to  have  will 
and  courage  of  their  own 

9.  The  Pilgrims  wished  to  thank  God  so  they  prepared  a  feast 

10.  Our  country  roads  are  full  of  chuck  holes  consequently  one 
must  drive  with  caution. 

213 


99 


PUNCTUATION  —  EXERCISE 

11.  The  first  player  advances  ten  paces  the  second  eight  the  third 

six  and  so  on 

12.  I  told  her  it  was  her  own  fault  she  was  too  reticent  and  held 

herself  aloof 

13.  He   had   complained    of    weariness   therefore   we   left   him    in 

camp 

14.  The  Panama  Canal  consists  of  four  sections  the  Atlantic  Level 

the  Lake  the  Cut  and  the  Pacific  Level 

15.  There  are  three  reasons  why  I  do  not  like  Ford  cars  first  they 

rattle  second  they  bump  and  third  they  never  wear  out 

16.  Protoplasm  has  been   found  to  contain  four  elements  carbon 

hydrogen  oxygen  and  nitrogen  but  by  no  artificial  combina- 
tion can  these  be  made  into  the  living  substance 

17.  Phlox   mignonette   sweet  peas   cannas  all   these  yield   flowers 

until  late  in  the  fall. 

18.  He  asked  for  hot  water  the  mollycoddle  as  if  this  were  a  hotel 

19.  Is  this  seat  occupied  sir  asked  Brown  who  stood  in  the  aisle 

20.  There  are  two  types  of  democracy  i  a  pure  democracy  and  2 

a  representative  democracy 

c. 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences : 

1.  And   Harvey  waiting  all   this   time  mind   you   sprang   for  the 

door 

2.  I  want  to  go  to  Memphis  Tennessee  to  the  old  house  if  it  is 

still  standing  where  I  was  born 

3.  My  bill  amounted  to  exactly  counting  the  ear  fare  nine  dollars 

and  ninety  five  cents 

4.  I  do  not  believe  it  he  cried  then  turning  to  the  others  in  the 

group  he  asked  nervously  do  you 

5.  Which  is  better  to  borrow  money  for  ones  school  expenses  or 

to  work  ones  way 

6.  He  swore  swore  like  a  pirate  and  lashed  the  horses 

7.  Dickens  novel  Martin  Chuzzlewit  is  satirical 

8.  But  what  of  the  Dakotas  of  ^Minnesota  of  Wisconsin  are  they 

to  give  us  no  political  support 


99 


PUNCTUATION  —  EXERCISE 

9.  The  grain  is  then  run  into  a  bm  called  the  weighing  bni  from 
this  It  is  let  down  on  to  the  scales 

10.  Lincoln   showed    very    plainly    what    the   phrase   All    men   are 

created  equal  means  and  what  its  application  was  to  the  anti 
slavery  movement 

11.  His  name  was  lets  see  what  was  the  fellows  name 

12.  He  looks  sharply  for  little  points  passed  over  by  the  average 

'person  afe  important  to  him 

13.  How  uncomfortable  I  feel  in  a  room  whose  windows  are  not 

covered  by  curtains  I  cannot  describe 

14.  Some  time  ago  he  moved  away  I  was  sorry  because  he  was  a 

fine  young  man 

15.  I  went  to  the  lawyers  office  to  hear  the  reading  of  my  uncles 

will 

16.  Well  well  I  havent  seen  you  for  years  But  youre  the  same  stub 

nosed  freckle  faced  good  natured  Tom 

17.  I  did  not  stop  long  to  consider  the  football  togs  were  nearest 

at  hand  so  in  they  went  cleated  shoes  trousers  sweater  pads 
headgear  and  the  rest. 

18.  Today  I  shall  outline  explain  and  argue  the  subject  which  has 

already  been  announced  to  you  namely  The  Distribution 
of  Taxes  in  Illinois 

19.  His  piping  voice  his  long  crooked  nose  his  white  hair  falling 

over  the  shoulders  of  his  faded  blue  coat  his  shuffling 
shambling  gait  as  he  hobbled  up  to  Carletons  Grocery  with 
his  basket  all  this  I  shall  remember  as  long  as  I  live 

20.  We   hold    these   truths   to   be   self   evident   that    all    men   are 

created  equal  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with 
certain  inalienable  rights  that  among  these  rights  are  life 
liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness 


100 


100.  GENERAL  EXERCISE 

Improve  the  following  sentences,  making  as  many 
changes  as  are  necessary  to  express  the  thought  clearly 
and  accurately. 

A. 

1.  It  don't  sound  right. 

2.  Us  fellows  hadn't  ought  to  complain. 

3.  The  decision  effects  itiy  brother  and  I  alike. 

4.  Following  his  breakfast  he  went  up  to  the  office. 

5.  One  finds  that  beginning  on  a  pipe  organ  is  much  more  com- 

plicated than  the  piano. 

6.  She   married   before    she   was   eighteen,    she   had   never   taken 

much  interest  in  school  work. 

7.  New  Year's  Eve,  a  young  lady  who  I  was  calling  upon,  and 

myself  decided  to  fool  the  old   folks. 

8.  Williams   drove  across  town   at   full   speed,  this   was   against 

the  ordinances. 

9.  Mr.   Black,  who  had  been   laying   on   the   sofa,    rose   and   set 

down  by  myself. 

10.  The  agricultural  course  is  a  study  which  every  person  should 

have  a  great  deal  of  knowledge  along  that  line. 

11.  Swinging  around  the  curve,  the  open  switch  was  seen  in  time, 

and  directly  the  train  stopped  we  rushed  off  of  the  cars. 

12.  I  can  say  a  little  in  regard  to  my  expectations  in  connection 

with  the  next  four  years  of  my  life,  however.     Expectations 
of  work,  pleasure,  and  perhaps  a  little  sorrow. 

13.  An  interesting  experience  of  mine  was  a  collection  of  insects 

made  when  I  studied  biology. 

14.  A  man  can  talk  to  an  animal,  and  he  learns  to  obey  him  by 

repeating  certain  commands. 

15.  The  life  of  a  princess  as  well  as  a  hermit  are  made  happy 

by  a  little  child,  as  illustrated  in  the  stories  of   Pharaoh's 
daughter  and  Silas  Marner. 
216 


100 

GENERAL  EXERCISE 

B. 

1.  Every  one  in  the  office  were  busy  invoicing. 

2.  Their  unconscious  pranks  and  laughter  is  very  amusing. 

3.  The  tiger  is  a  beautiful  animal,  it  is  also  very  ferocious. 

4.  Either  he  or  she  are  good  companions  for  you. 

5.  Again,  take  a  student  who  has  been  forced  to  make  his  own 

-  way,  th&  question  may  be  harder  to  decide. 

6.  As  for  the  proposition  which  is  before  you,  if  it  was  me,  I 

would  not  even  consider  it. 

7.  The  tly  is  the  irfsect  that  causes  more  fatal  deaths  in  a  year 

than  any  other  insect. 

8.  The  success  of  a  sponge  cake  depends  upon  two  things.     The 

beating  of  the  eggs  and  the  mi.xing  of  the  flour  in  lightly. 

9.  James,  a  youth  of  such  energy,  and  who  is  attractive  in  many 

ways,  failed  in  his  exams. 

10.  Fish  are  only  found  in  the  deep  holes,  and  they  are  hard  to 

get  at. 

11.  Besides   cigarettes,   there   are   other    forms   of    using   tobacco, 

such  as  cigars,  and  in  pipes,  and  chewing  tobacco,  making 
the  total  consumption  very  great. 

12.  I  am  endeavoring  to  secure  for  this  position  a  man  not  only 

with  ability  as  a  manager,  but  one  who  is  capable  of  un- 
derstanding and  sympathizing  with  rural  community  con- 
ditions. 

13.  Any  one  having  any  question  to  ask  or  who  has  trouble  with 

their  camera,  may  write  to  this  department. 

14.  When   1   hear  oatmeal   it  nauseates  me.     I   can  see  a   mental 

picture  of  the  breakfast  table  where  1  sat  nearly  all  last 
summer. 

15.  In  ones  second  year  in  high  school  the  books  to  be  read  are 

Burns  Poems,  Miltons  paradise  Lost;  Bunyans  Pilgrims 
Progress,  and  several  of  Shakespeares  plays. 


1.  He  promised  to  on  no  consideration  delay. 

2.  1  heard  a  voice  at  the  door  which  was  familiar. 

217 


GENERAL  EXERCISE 

3.  The  most  important  part  of  a  book  is  often  to  read  the  preface. 

4.  Observnig  carefully,  a  number  of  errors  are  seen  to  exist. 

5.  Unless  one  is  very  wealthy  they  cannot  afford  to  own  a  car. 

6.  These  kind  of  fellows  usually  make  good  athletes. 

7.  It  was  the  custom  of  we  campers  to  ride  into  town  and  back 

on  freight  cars,  when  in  need  of  supplies. 

8.  As  1  was  sitlmg  near  a  radiator  so  I   moved  as  I  decided  it 

was  too  warm  there. 

9.  To  thine  own  self  be  true  is  the  advice  Folonius  gave  to  his 

son. 

10.  In  order  that  Otto  should  not  regain  his  political  power  back 

again,  Sarphina  put  him  in  jail. 

11.  For  every  action  there  is  an  opposite  and   equal   reaction   is 

the  idea  which  Emerson's  essay  on  compensation  begins. 

12.  To  consult  a  Bible  encyclopedia  and  read  it  concerning  Eas- 

ter, one  learns  quite  a  little  about  that  religious  holiday. 

13.  Never  try  to  shoot  a  rabbit  or  any  animal  when  they  are  not 

moving,  for  among  hunters  it  is  very  poor  sportsmanship 
to  kill  any  animal  before  they  have  had  a  chance  to  get 
away. 

14.  We  find  that  many  of  Whittier's  poems  were  concerned  with 

slavery,  which  he  considered  a  very  great  moral  wrong,  and 
determined  to  do  all  in  his  power  to  eradicate  this  evil. 

15.  Rhetoric  is  required  in  order  that  a  person  may  learn  how  to 

express  their  thoughts  so  as  to  be  readily  understood,  and 
the  ability  to  do  this  greatly  increases  the  value  of  your 
knowledge. 

D. 

1.  Socialism  is  different  than  anarchy. 

2.  He  ate  the  lunch  instead  of  his  sister. 

3.  The  Volga  is  the  longest  of  any  river  in  Europe. 

4.  I  come  over  to  see  if  you  will  leave  Tilly  go  on  a  picnic  with 

us  tomorrow. 

5.  The  value  of  the  birds  are  studied  and  the  good  results  taught 

to  the  older  children. 

6.  Despotism  is  where  a  ruler  is  not  responsible  to  those  under 

his  authority. 

ai8 


100 

GENERAL  EXERCISE 

7.  When  a  boy  or  girl  enters  a  high  school  they  think  they  are 

very  important. 

8.  I  was  anxious  to  begin  eating,  so  no  time  was  wasted  by  me. 

9.  They  run  out  of  ammunition,  which  caused  them  to  loose  the 

battle. 

10.  The  mind  is  not  only  developed,  but  also  the  body. 

11.  He  built  a  reservoir  varying  from  75  to   150  ft.  in  diameter 
•    and  from  8  to  15  ft.  high. 

12.  The  most  principal  reason  for  going  to  college  is  so  as  to  pre- 

pare myself  for  teaching. 

13.  While  the  room  was  not  very  large,  yet  it  had  a  good-sized 

closet  in  which  to  put  a  trunk  would  be  easy  and  lighted 
by  a  small  window. 

14.  A  college  education  is  supposed  to  be  general  and  thorough 

by  training  a  man  not  only  into  something  definite,  but  give 
him  a  wider  scope  from  which  to  choose  from. 

15.  Motion   pictures  give   actual  battle   scenes   showing  just  how 

the  different  countries  carry  on  warfare,  in  taking  care  of 
the  wounded,  making  ammunition,  and  how  they  discharge 
the  artillery,  and  advance  or  retreat. 

E. 

1.  He  acted  like  the  rest  did. 

2.  He  don't  see  anything  attractive  about  her. 

3.  Neither  Admiral  Beatty  nor  Admiral  Sims  are  afraid  to  take 

chances. 

4.  The   Girl's   Campfire   Organization   was   organized    when   the 

Boy  Scouts  organization  was  proved  such  a  success. 

5.  The  coal  is  found  likely  15  ft.  from  the  waters  edge,  extend- 

ing horizontally  under  the  cliff. 

6.  It   is   no    sure   sign   that   just  because   a   student   has   took   a 

course  in  literature,  that  he  really  enjoys  the  best  -eading. 

7.  One  of  the  most  noticeable  characteristics  about  Lowell's  let- 

ters were  that  they  are  brief,  to  the  point,  and  emphatic. 

8.  On  the  license  there  will  be  found  the  laws  regarding  hunting 

and  on  the  baqtekfijLiLj£llsiiKheri,,th«fvdifferQnt  seasons  are 


,<tn   .X'jt 


GENERAL  EXERCISE 

9.  The  St.  Louis  Republic  is  a  partisan  democratic  newspaper  and 
thus  it  can  be  guessed  as  to  what  their  editorials  are  like 
concerning  political  questions. 

10.  If  the  public  in  general  is  well  posted  on  the  subject  and  finds 

that  the  chanty  workers  are  in  earnest,  they  are  much  more 
apt  to  donate. 

11.  Some  were  laughing,  some  acted  serious,  others  like  myself 

were  merely  looking  on. 

12.  Entering  the  campus,  the  Library  is  seen,  which  is  a  building 

nicer  than  all  the  others. 

13.  The  Ideal  Starter  starts  the  engine  perfectly  without  leaving 

the  driver's  seat. 

14.  The  fly  feeds  on  decayed  vegetable  matter,  and  also  the  de- 

cayed animal. 

15.  It  is  true  that  some  people  keep  a  fire  extinguisher.     It  is  of 

minor  importance  when  considering  organized  fire  protec- 
tion. It  is  organized  fire  protection  with  which  we  are 
chiefly  concerned,  so  let  us  dismiss  the  former  and  proceed 
to  the  latter  subject. 

F. 

1.  In  olden  days  the  curfew  rung  everywheres  at  9  o'clock. 

2.  If  a  person  was  to  become  a  charity  worker,  it  would  necessi- 

tate him  giving  time  and  efi'ort. 

3.  I  think  most  any  person  can  appreciate  a  good  joke  when  it 

is  not  on  them. 

4.  Your  clothing  for  the  hunt  should  be  warm  and  of  goods  that 

will  not  tear  easy. 

5.  Life  can  be  classified  in  four  general  stages.     Infancy,  Youth, 

Maturity,  and  Old  Age. 

6.  At  the  sound  of  the  summons  I  had  to  arise  from  my  downy 

cot  and  hurry  to  the  morning  repast. 

7.  He  was  surprised  at  the  way  people  lived  in  the  city.     Espe- 

cially the  dirt  and  misery  of  the  slums. 

8.  The  house  is  battered  and  dingy,  being  built  twenty  years  ago 

by  Mr.  Robinson,  and  needs  paint  badly. 

9.  We  hadn't  scarcely  more  than  begun  the  work  when  one  of  the 

220 


100 

GENERAL  EXERCISE 

engines  got  broke  and  we  had  to  stop  until  it  could  be  fixed. 

10.  Neither    self-denial    nor    self-sacrifice   are   to    be    admired,    or 

even  pardoned,  at  the  cost  of  happiness,  Stevenson  says. 

11.  The   thing    that    took    my   eye    most    of    all    were    the    walls. 

Pennants,  pictures,  and  souvenirs  were  hanging  everywhere. 

12.  'Grandmother  had   put  the  spectacles   in   the   Bible  which   she 

had  lost. 

13.  In  the  sufnmer  time  the  weather  is  warm  but  some  people  are 

complaining  of  the  hot  weather  and  who  wish  the  weather 
would  turn  cQoler  but  is  it  not  this  kind  of  weather  that 
makes  the  plants  grow,  which  in  turn  furnish  us  food? 

14.  Until  athletics  are  demanded   from  the  weaker  students,  the 

training  will  go  to  the  one  who  does  not  need  it,  and  the 
ones  who  do  need  it  are  sitting  up  on  the  bleachers  exer- 
cising their  lungs. 

15.  The  people  of  olden  times  used  pumps,  but  did  not  know  why 

they  worked,  they  thought  it  worked  because  "  nature  abhors 
a  vacuum."' 


1.  Each  one  of  these  three  books  are  interesting. 

2.  You  may  put  this  hat  in  any  desired  shape  you  like. 

3.  We  motored  over  to  Bloomington  which  was  much  more  pleas- 

ant than  the  train. 

4.  Every  one  of  his  statements  are  so  clear  that  they  cannot  be 

misconstrued  what  they  mean. 

5.  Analysis  is  when  things  are  resolved  into  elements  or  parts. 

6.  She  dropped  the  doll  on  the  pavement,  of  which  she  was  very 

fond. 

7.  He  was  otYered  money  to  keep  still,  but  would  not,  thus  show- 

ing his  good  character. 

8.  The  first  training  center  for  training  police  dogs  was  in  Hildes- 

heim,  Prussia,  and  was  in  the  year  1896. 

9.  The  draining  of  land  not  only  increases  the  yield,  and  it  greatly 

lengthens  the  season  that  the  land  may  be  worked. 
10.  He  next  stated  the  number  of  the  founders  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, which  were  ,39  in  no. 

221 


GENERAL  EXERCISE 

11.  The  life  of  Doctor  Kingsley  is  a  good  example  of  a  man  who 

has  succeeded. 

12.  The  fortunes  of  our  country  are  now  standing  at  the  cannon's 

mouth,  and  one  vote  may  stem  the  tide  of  disaster. 

13.  There  was  little  scenery  on  an  Elizabethan  stage.     While  the 

parts  intended  for  women  were  performed  by  men. 

14.  The  cave  which  Tom  Sawyer  was  lost  in  really  existed.     It 

was  the  cave  just  outside  Hannibal,  Missouri,  it  was  near 
the  Mississippi.  Here  was  the  place  where  Mark  Twain 
was  a  boy. 

15.  Yes,  and  the  buildings  werent  what  they  are  now,  do  you  re- 

member how  we  used  to  go  to  the  old  log  meeting  house, 
that  was  up  on  stilts,  and  the  pigs  crawled  under  the  floor 
and  raised  such  a  disturbance  that  the  preacher  had  to  stop 
and  have  the  pigs  chased  out  before  he  could  continue  the 
sermon  ? 


INDEX 


The  numbers  refer  to  articles. 
Abbreviations,  83,  90c  Application  for  a  position,  87g 


Absolute  expressions 

Defined,  58 

Punctuation  of,  (ryie 
Accept  and  except,  67 
Ad,  68 

Addresses,  87b,  870 
Adjectives 

Classes  of,  58 

Comparison  of,  58 

Distinguished   from  adverbs, 
56 

In  a  series,  gif,  gij2 
Adverbs, 

Classes  of,  58 

Comparison  of,  58 

Distinguished     from     adjec- 
tives, 56 
Affect  and  effect,  67 
Aggravate,  68 
Agreement 

Of  verbs,  52 

Of  pronouns,  51,  501 
Ain't,  68 
All  right,  68 
Almost,  Position  of,  27 
Allusion  and  illusion,  67 
Already  and  all  ready,  67 
And     before      a      subordinate 

phrase  or  clause,   16,   17 
And  used  to  excess,  14 
And  ivhich  construction,  17 
Antecedent 

Defined,  58 

Faulty  reference  to,  20-23 
Anybody,  Xumber  of,  51a 
Apostrophe 

In  contractions,  97 

With  possessive,  97,  5of 


Articles,  Omission  of,  3 
As,  Incorrect  use  of,  50a,  68 
Aspect  of  the  verb,  58 
Auxiliary 

Defined,  58 

Use  of,  55e 
Awful,  Abuse  of,  68 

Balanced  sentence,  45 

Balanced  structure,  30,  45 

Barbarisms,  66 

Because  clauses,  5 

Because  of  phrases,  5  Note 

Be,  Nominative  with,  50c 

Both  .  .  .  and,  31 

Brackets.  956 

Brevity  for  emphasis,  41,  60 

Business  letters,  87c 

Bust  or  busted,  68 

But  used  to  excess,  38  Note 

Can  and  may,  67 
Cannot  help  but,  34 
Capitals,  81 
Case 

Defined,  58 

Use  of,  50 
Cause,     Inaccurate     statement 

of,  5 
Caused  by,  5  Note,  23,  68 
Change  in   number  or  person, 

33 
Change  in  subject  or  voice,  32 
Change  in  tense.  33,  55 
Choppy  sentences,   13 
Claim.  68 
Clauses 

Cause,  5 


223 


INDEX 


The  nii»ibers  refer  to  articles. 


Clauses  —  continued 

Coordinated  loosely,  14,  12 
Detined,  58 

House-that-Jack-built,  38 
Misplaced,  24 

Misused  as  sentences,  i,  90b 
Restrictive  and  non-r.,  yid 
Subordinate.     Not  to  be  used 

as  complete  sentences,   i 
Subordination  faulty,  15 
To    be    reduced    to    phrases, 

60 
When  or  where  clauses,  6 
Clearness,  20-39 
Cliinax,  44 
Coherence,  24-29 
Colon,  93 
Collective   nouns,    Number   of, 

51c 
Colloquialisms,  65 
Comma,  91,  92c  Notes  i  and  2, 
95  b 
After  quotation,  96  Note 
■'  Comma  splice  "  or  "  comma 

fault,"   18 
Not      used     after     question 
mark,  98b 
Comparison  of   adjectives  and 

adverbs,  58 
Comparisons.  Inaccurate,  4 
Compound    sentence    structure 

in  excess,  12,  14 
Compound  words,  78 
Concreteness,  63 
Conjugation,  58 
Conjunctions 
Defined,  58 
List  of,  36 
Omitted,  2>7 
Repeated  carelessly,  38 
Coniunctive  adverbs 
Defined,  58 
Punctuation  with,  92c 
Connectives,  8,  36,  2i7'  38 
Consonants 

Between  syllables,  71,  85 
Final  (in  spelling),  75 


Construction 

Incomplete,  2 

Mixed,  34 

Split,  28 
Contractions 

Apostrophe  with,  97 

When  proper,  65b 
Coordination,  Excessive,  12,  14 
Correlatives,  31 
Could  of,  68 

Dangling  gerund,  23 

Dangling  participle,  27, 

Dash,  94 

Dates,  Writing  of,  84,  9ie 

Declension,  58 

Definition,  6  Note 

Dialogue 

Paragraphing,  88c 

Punctuation  before,  9ih,  93a 

Punctuation  in,  96 
Diction,  Faulty   (list),  68 
Different  than,  68 
Divided  reference,  20 
Don't.  5id 

Double  capacity,  Words  in,  57 
Double  negative,  34  Note 
Droivnded.  68 

Due  to.  Proper  use  of,  5  Note, 
2^  Note,  68 

Each,  Number  of,  51a 

ei  or  ie,  74 

Either.  Number  of,  Sia 

Either  .  .  .  or,  31 

Ellipsis 

Defined,  58 

Misuse  of,  3,  23  Note 
Emigrate  and  immigrate,  67 
Emphasis 

By  brevity,  41 

By  position,  40 

By  repetition,  47 

By  separation,  41 

By  subordination,  42,  14 

By  variety,  48 
Enthuse,  68 


224 


INDEX 


The  numbers  refer  to  articles. 


Etc..  Use  of,  68 
Euphemism,  6i 
Ever,  Position  of,  27 
Every,    every    one,    everybody, 

Number  of,  51a 
Exclamation  point,  gSe 
Exact  connecti\e,  36 
Exact  word,  62 

Figures,  Use  of,  84 

Figures  of  speech.  Mixed,  35 

Final  consonant    (in   spelling), 

Final'  e  before  a  sut+ix,  76 
Fine,  Abuse  of,  68 
Fine  writing,  61 
Flowery  language,  61 
Formal  invitations,  87h 
Fonncr,  68 

Getit,  68 

Geographical  names,  Qie 

Gerund 

Dangling,  23 

Defined,  58 

With  possessive,  50g 
Good  use,  65,  66 
Gotten,  68 
Grammar,   50-59 
Grammatical  terms,  58 
Guess,  68 

Hackneyed  expressions,  61 
Had  ought.  68 
Handwriting,  8oc 
Hanged  and  hung,  67 
Healthy  and  healthful,  67 
Historical  present,  ^t.  Note 
However,  Position  of,  27 
Human,  humans,  68 
Hygienic  and  sanitary,  67 
Hyphen 

Between  syllables,  85 
In  compound  words,  78 

Idioms,  65 

Illogical  thought,  4,  5,  6,  7 


Imagery  mixed,  35 
Impersonal  construction.  Need- 
less use  of,  60 
Improprieties,  6(i 
Incomplete  consti  uctiori, 'i. 
Indefinite  it.  you,  they,  22  Nott 
Indention  of  paragraphs,  88 
Inflection,  58 
Infinitive 

Case  with,  5oe 

Defined,  58 

Sign  of,  to  be  repeated,  37 

Split,  28 

Tense  of,  55 
Instants  and  instance,  67 
Interjections 

Defined,  58 

Punctuation  of,  91  e,  986 
Invitations,  Formal,  87h 
Is  when  clauses,  6 
Is  ivhere  clauses,  6 
Italics,  82,  96e 

Its  (possessive  adjective), 
without  apostrophe,  5of, 
97d 

Kind  of,  58 

Later  and  latter,  67 

Lead  and  led,  67 

Learn  and  teach,  67 

Leave  and  let,  67 

Length  of  paragraph,  88b 

Length  of  sentences,  12,  13,  48b 

Less  and  feiver,  67 

Letters,  87 

Liable  and  likely,  67 

Lie  and  lay,  59D,  67 

Like  (for  as),  67,  (58 

List 

Of  connectives,  36 
Of  principal  parts,  54 
Of  grammatical  terms,  58 
Of  words  confused  in  mean- 
ing, 67 
Of  words  incorrectly  used,  68 
Of  words   logically  akin,  72 


225 


INDEX 


Tlic  numbers  refer  to  articles. 


List  —  continued 

Of  words  confused  in  spell- 
ing, 73 

For  spelling,  79 
Loan,  08 
Locate.  08 
Logic,  4.  5,  6,  7 
Logical  Agreement,  4,  5,  6 
Logical  Sequence,  25 
Ldjt?  and  loose,  67 
Lofj  0/,  68 

Majority  and  plurality,  67 
Manuscript,  80 
.1/ ((//;/  of,  68 
Misplaced  word,  27 
Mixed  constructions,  34 
oMixed  imagery,  35 
IModal  aspects,  58 
Mode 

Definition  of,  58 

Use  of  subjunctive,  55d 
IModifiers 

Grouping  of,  24,  25 

Needless    separation    of,    24, 

27 
Squinting,  26 

Wrongly  used   as   sentences, 
I,  gob 
]\Ioney,  84c 

Most  (for  almost),  66,  68 
Myself,  Needlessly  used  for  / 
or  me,  68 

Negative,  Double.  34  Note 
Neither,  Number  of,  51a 
Neither  .  .  .  nor,  31 
Nice,  Inaccurate  use  of,  62,  68 
Nicknames,     Quotations     with, 

96d 
Not  only  .  .  .  but  also,  31 
Nouns,  Classes  of,  58 
Number 

Shift  in,  T,T, 

These  kind,  etc.,  51b 

Each,  Every,  etc.,  51a 

Collective  nouns,  51c 

Of  verbs,  52 


226 


Numbers,  Use  of,  84 
Formation  of  plural,  77d,  97e 

O  and  Oh,  68 
Objectne  case,  5od,  5oe 
Off  of,  68 
Omission 

Of  words,  3 

From  quotations,  96i 
Only,  Position  of,  2y 
Outlines.  86 

Overlapping  thought,  8  Note 
Ozi'ing    to.    Proper    use    of,    5 
Note 

Paragraphs,  88 

Parallel  structure,  30,  31,  45 

Parenthesis    and    parenthetical 

elements,  91  e,  94a,  95 
Participle 

Dangling,  2}, 

Definition  of,  58 
Parts  of  speech,  58 
Party.  Abuse  of,  68 
Passive  voice,  not  emphatic,  46 
Past   tense.    Wrong    forms  of, 

54 
Past  perfect  tense,  55 
Period,  90,  91b,  92a  Note 

After  quotation,  96g  Note 

Not      used     after     question 
mark,  98b 

"  Period  blunder,"  i,  90b 
Periodic  sentence,  43 
Person,  Change  in,  ^t, 
Phonetic  spelling,  71  Note 
Phrases 

Defined,  58 

Not  to  be  used  as  sentences, 
I  Note 

Absolute.  9ie 
Plurals,  Spelling  of,  77 
Poetry   to    be    separated    from 

prose,  41,  8ob 
Point  of  view.  Shift  in,  22 
Ponderous  language,  60 


INDEX 


The  numhers 

Possessive 
With  gerund,  50g 
Apostrophe  with,  5of,  97 
Inanimate  obiects  in,  5oh 

Practical  and  practicable,  67 

Predicate  adjective,  58 

Predicate  noun,  58 

Prefixes,  ~2  . 

Prepositions 
Defined.  58 
Omitted,  3,  2>7      , 
Repeated  carelessly,  38 

Principal  parts,  54 

Principal  and  principle,  67 

Pronouns 
Agreement   with    antecedent, 

'  5oi 

Case  of,  50 

Kinds  of,  58 

Reference  of,  20,  21,  22 

Wrong  use  of  myself,  your- 
self, for  /,  me,  yon,  68 
Pronunciation    as    a    guide    to 

spelling,  71 
Proof  and  evidence,  67 
Proposition,  Synonyms  for,  62 
Proven,  68 
Psciido-  and  quasi-,  67 

Quiet  and  quite,  67 

Question  mark,  98 

Quotation     marks     vs.     italics, 

82a  Note  2,  g6e 
Quotations 

Punctuation  before,  gih,  92d, 

93a 
Punctuation  of,  96 

Reason,    Statement    of.    to    be 
completed  by  a  that  clause, 

5 
Redundance,  60 
Reference 

Ambiguous.  20 

Broad,  22 

Divided.  20 

Ijnpersonal,  22  Note 


refer  to  articles. 

Reference  —  continued 
Remote,  20 
To  a  clause,  22 
To  a  title,  21  Note 
To  an  unemphatic  word,  21 
Weak,  21 
Reflexive  wrongly  used  for  the 

simple  pronoun,  68 
Repetition 
Of     connectives,    good,    S7 ', 

bad,  38 
Of  structure,  good,  47b;  bad, 

4Sb 
Of    words,    good,    47a ;    bad, 
48a 
Respectfully    and    respectively, 

67 
Restrictive  and  non-restrictive 

clauses,  9id 
Right  smart,  68 
Rise  and  raise,  59D,  67 

Said,  Synonyms  for,  62 
Same,  Abuse  of,  68 
Scrappy  sentences,  13 
Semicolon,  91b,  92,  95b 
After  quotation,  96g  Note 
Not     used      after     question 
mark,  98b 
Sequence  of  tense,  55 
Sequence  of  thought,  25 
Series,     Punctuation    of,     91  f, 

9ig,  91J  3 
Shall  and  zvill,  53 
Shift    in    number,    person,    or 

tense,  2i2 
Shift  in  subject  or  voice,  32 
Should  and  zcould,  ^1, 
Sit  and  set,  59D,  67 
Slang,  66 

Quotations  with,  96d 
So,  36  Note,  68 
Some,  Abuse  of,  68 
Soniezvhercs,  68 
Sound,  64 
Spacing,  80b 
Specific  words,  63 


227 


INDEX 


Spelling,  70-/9 

Spilt  construction,  28 

Split  infinitive,  28 

Squinting,  20 

Statwtiary  and  stationery,  67 

Statue,  stature,  and  statute,  67 

Stringy  sentences,  12.  14 

Subject  in  nominative  case,  50a 

Subjunctive  mode 

Defined,  58 

Use  of.  53d 
Subordinating  conjunctions 

Defined,  58 

Enumerated,  36 
Subordination 

Necessary,  12,  13.  14 

Faulty,  15,  16,  17,  42 

And  whieli,  17 
Substantive  defined,  58 
Such,  68 
Suffixes,  75,  76 

Superlative  degree  in  compari- 
sons, 4,  58 
Sure  and  surely,  68 
Suspicion,  68 
Syllabication,  85 
Syntax  defined,  58 

Tautology,  60  Note 

Technical     terms.     Quotations 

with,  96d 
Tense 

In  dependent  clauses,  55a 
In  general  statements,  55c 
Past  perfect.  55b 
Sequence  of,  55 
Shift  in,  T,T, 
Than  or  as.  Case  of  pronouns 

after,  50a 
That  there,  68 

Them    (misused  as  adjective), 
68 


Tlie  numbers  refer  to  articles. 

These  kind.  51b 

Those,    Omission    of    relative 
clause  after,  2,  68 

Thought  undeveloped,  7 

Title 

Capitals  in,  81 
Reference  to,  21  Note 
Spacing,  etc.,  8oa,  96J 
Quoted     (books,    periodicals, 
etc.),  82a,  g6e 

Transitions.  8,  36 

Transpire,  68 

Triteness,  61 


Undeveloped  thought,  7 
Unity,  iCHig 

Upside-down  subordination,  15 
Usage,  Good,  65,  66 

Verbals,  58 

Verb,  Forms  of  the,  58 

Ways,  68 

Weak  reference,  21 

IVhere  at,  68 

While.  Abuse  of,  36 

Jl'in  out.  68 

Who.  whoever,  50b 

IVoods,  68 

Would  of.  68 

Wordiness,  60 

Words 

Confused  in  meaning,  67 
Confused  in  spelling,  73 
Double  capacity  of,  57 
Misused,  68 
Omission  of,  3 


Yourself     wrongly 
you,  68 


used     for 


228 


iCOMPLETENESSfragmentsl  Incomplete  I NecfSM^y 


Aomtj 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY      ,,^conomiet 
JUL  1  7  1959  Los  Angeles  ';,ibrary 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


Form  L9-40to-7,'56(C790s4)444 


?(3risonsi 
hough; 

\A     ' 

-.dssm 
linatic 

24 
34~" 

lixed 

44 

Jer  c 
imax 

54  '    = 

ncipcl 
arts 


-ti^ 


JX  I... 


oA 

)Und     jr.: 


-^ 


65 

■>ms 
C()il'< .  jialisms 


TA 

]n6  /e 

Doul-ling  'n 
a  fina' 

consono.  .■ 

34 

5 

fnb^' 

■CO 

94 

7 

iash 

-ir.1 


University  Of  California  Los  Angeles 


L  007  618  61 


3e 


3  9 

Exercise 

29 

Exercise 

39 

Exercise 
zxercisc 

59      ~ 

Exercise 


69 

f  fc        _  Exercise 
i.ieafimg  |  diclion 


TT 

Plun 


78 


T9 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


AA    000  352  201 

gr        Exercise 


'X 

IT 


99 

Exercise 


